Analysis of Favorable Process Conditions for the Manufacturing of Thin-Wall Pieces of Mild Steel Obtained by Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials for WAAM process
2.2. WAAM Equipment
2.3. Fabrication of Samples by WAAM
- WAAM process:
- ◦
- Metal inert gas (MIG)
- ◦
- CMT
- ◦
- CMT Advanced polarity −5 (CMT Adv. pol. −5)
- ◦
- CMT Advanced polarity 0 (CMT Adv. pol. 0)
- ◦
- CMT Advanced polarity (CMT Adv. pol. +5)
- ◦
- CMT continuous trajectory (CMT Cont.)
- Welding speed (constant = 400 mm/min)
- Deposition speed (constant = 2.5 m/min)
- Arc voltage (constant = 9.2 V)
- Current intensity (50 A, 66 A, 70 A, 78 A)
- Layer step (1.0 mm, 1.5 mm)
2.4. Brinell Hardness Tests
Brinell Hardness Tests and Measurement of the Ball Prints
2.5. Determination of Mechanical Strength
2.6. Equipment and Measurement of Microstructure
3. Results
3.1. Evaluation of Hardness Profiles
3.2. Evaluation of Mechanical Strength
3.3. Microstructure Findings
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions and Future Work
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Position of the Indentations
Appendix B. Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM) to Detect Decohesionated Layer in the Upper Edge of the Surface
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Mechanical Properties | S235 JR | AWS ER70S-6 |
---|---|---|
Density (kg/m3) | 7800 | 7833 |
Yield point (MPa) | 235 | 420 |
UTS (MPa) | 370–510 | 500–640 |
Element | C | Mn | S | Ni | V | Cr | Cu | Si | P | Mo |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
wt% | 0.06–0.15 | 1.40–1.85 | 0.035 max | 0.15 max | 0.03 max | 0.15 | 0.50 | 0.80–1.15 | 0.025 | 0.15 max |
Nº | Process | Intensity (A) | Thermal Input * 1 (J/mm) | Welding Speed (mm/min) | Deposition Speed (m/min) | Wall Thickness (mm) | Layer Step (mm) | Total Height (mm) | Layer Height (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | MIG | 50 | 55.19 | 400 | 2.5 | 3.8 | 1.0 | 27.0 | 0.90 |
2 | CMT | 50 | 35.87 | 400 | 2.5 | 3.7 | 1.0 | 30.7 | 1.02 |
3 | CMT Adv. pol. 0 | 70 | 50.22 | 400 | 2.5 | 4.2 | 1.0 | 20.2 | 1.44 |
4 | CMT Adv. pol. 0 | 70 | 50.22 | 400 | 2.5 | 5.5 | 1.5 | 35.5 | 0.92 |
5 | CMT Adv. pol. −5 | 66 | 47.36 | 400 | 2.5 | 4.5 | 1.5 | 41.2 | 1.07 |
6 | CMT Adv. pol. +5 | 78 | 55.97 | 400 | 2.5 | 6.6 | 1.5 | 33.4 | 0.80 |
7 | CMT Cont. | 50 | 35.87 | 400 | 2.5 | 3.1 | 1.0 | 30.5 | 1.02 |
Sample nº | Process | Thermal Input (J/mm) | Brinell Hardness (Mean Value) | 〈d〉 | dmax | dmin | R |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | MIG | 55.19 | 172.89 | 0.729 | 0.731 | 0.7285 | 0.003 |
2 | CMT | 35.87 | 142.14 | 0.790 | 0.809 | 0.759 | 0.064 |
3 | CMT Adv. pol. 0 | 50.22 | 159.03 | 0.761 | 0.790 | 0.725 | 0.086 |
4 | CMT Adv. pol. 0 | 50.22 | 153.00 | 0.778 | 0.799 | 0.759 | 0.051 |
5 | CMT Adv. pol. −5 | 47.36 | 154.49 | 0.773 | 0.789 | 0.759 | 0.038 |
6 | CMT Adv. pol. +5 | 55.97 | 148.84 | 0.792 | 0.815 | 0.771 | 0.056 |
7 | CMT Cont. | 35.87 | 152.67 | 0.772 | 0.784 | 0.765 | 0.025 |
UTS (MPa) Correlation per Indentation (ID) According to Figure 6. | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Process | |||||||
ID | MIG | CMT | CMT Adv. pol. 0 | CMT Adv. pol. 0 | CMT Adv. pol. −5 | CMT Adv. pol. +5 | CMT-Cont. |
1 | 573.33 | 479.99 | 516.38 | 498.34 | 498.39 | 467.42 | 528.44 |
2 | 583.30 | 473.06 | 499.98 | 483.64 | 562.20 | 465.82 | 505.24 |
3 | 587.47 | 468.90 | 495.17 | 488.64 | 497.70 | 534.68 | 499.66 |
4 | 589.84 | 477.92 | 561.66 | 541.73 | 495.74 | 490.68 | 501.99 |
5 | 572.46 | 454.32 | 590.94 | 558.59 | 537.12 | 544.38 | 498.00 |
Mean | 581.28 | 470.84 | 532.82 | 514.19 | 518.23 | 500.59 | 506.67 |
Base Material Specification | UTS (MPa) |
---|---|
SA-36 (equivalent to S235JR) | 400–550 |
SA-285 | 310–515 |
SA-515 | 415–485 |
SA-516 | 380–485 |
Element | Mn | C | O | Si | Cu | Fe |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
wt% | 1.58 | 7.59 | 1.79 | 0.83 | 0.44 | 87.77 |
Sample nº | Process | Most Homogeneous Hardness Profiles (Figure 6a–g) | Highest Values of Mean Hardness (Figure 6h) | Best Estimated UTS [55] (Table 5) | Absence of Decohesionated Layer at the Surface (Figure A2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | MIG | X | X | ||
2 | CMT | X | X | X | |
3 | CMT Adv pol. 0 | X | |||
4 | CMT Adv pol. 0 | X | |||
5 | CMT Adv pol. −5 | X | |||
6 | CMT Adv pol. +5 | X | |||
7 | CMT Cont. | X | X | X |
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Prado-Cerqueira, J.L.; Camacho, A.M.; Diéguez, J.L.; Rodríguez-Prieto, Á.; Aragón, A.M.; Lorenzo-Martín, C.; Yanguas-Gil, Á. Analysis of Favorable Process Conditions for the Manufacturing of Thin-Wall Pieces of Mild Steel Obtained by Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). Materials 2018, 11, 1449. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081449
Prado-Cerqueira JL, Camacho AM, Diéguez JL, Rodríguez-Prieto Á, Aragón AM, Lorenzo-Martín C, Yanguas-Gil Á. Analysis of Favorable Process Conditions for the Manufacturing of Thin-Wall Pieces of Mild Steel Obtained by Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). Materials. 2018; 11(8):1449. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081449
Chicago/Turabian StylePrado-Cerqueira, José Luis, Ana María Camacho, José Luis Diéguez, Álvaro Rodríguez-Prieto, Ana María Aragón, Cinta Lorenzo-Martín, and Ángel Yanguas-Gil. 2018. "Analysis of Favorable Process Conditions for the Manufacturing of Thin-Wall Pieces of Mild Steel Obtained by Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)" Materials 11, no. 8: 1449. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081449