A Comprehensive Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade Damage
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Potential Causes of Wind Turbine Blade Failures
- damage from lightning;
- failures due to fatigue;
- leading edge erosion;
- damage from icing.
2.1. Damage from Lightning
- More than 60% of the total damage occurred within the last meter of the blade, and 90% of all damage was located within the last 4 m. The remaining 10% of damage was found mainly from 5 m to 10 m from the blade tip. There were only three lightning incidents further inboard, at 15 m, 20 m and 22 m from the tip.
- The most common type of lightning damage was delamination (72.4% of total blade damage), followed by debonding of the shells (24.7%). Shell and tip detachment each occurred in 1.4% of the investigated cases.
- Wind turbines suffering damage to more than one blade are uncommon (2.7% in two blades and 0.7% in three blades). A single lightning stroke sweeping from one blade to another due to the blade rotation, different branches of a single lightning strike attaching to the blades, or different lightning events during a thunderstorm can be the potential causes of damage observed in more than one blade of the same wind turbine [39]. In any case, it is shown that damage to more than one blades of a single wind turbine is a rare event.
2.2. Fatigue Damage on Wind Turbine Blades
- Reduction of the glass transition temperature of the matrix resin
- Damage to the interface between the fibres and the resin
- Reduction of the cure-induced residual stresses through swelling, which may retard failure
- Particularly in wind park installations in locations with subzero temperatures, the presence of moisture turning to ice. Ice formation can act as a wedge between the plies and leads to delamination propagation.
2.3. Leading Edge Erosion
- airborne particulates, mainly in the form of rain, hailstone, sea-spray, dust and sand
- UV light and humidity/moisture.
2.4. Damages from Icing
2.4.1. Rime Ice
2.4.2. Glaze
2.4.3. Wet Snow
- icing rate: ice accumulation per time (kg/h)
- maximum ice load: maximum ice mass accreted at a structure (kg/m).
2.4.4. Meteorological Icing
2.4.5. Instrumental Icing
2.4.6. Incubation Time
3. Protection against Wind Turbine Blade Failures
3.1. Protection from Lightning Damage
- adequate driving of the lightning strike to a preferred point, such as the blade’s air termination system
- installation of appropriate grounding, in order to guarantee the lightning current passage through the turbine’s structure into the earth, without causing any damage, including damage from strong electric or magnetic fields
- minimisation of voltage gradients developed in and around the wind turbine.
- air termination systems on the blade surfaces
- high resistive tapes and diverters
- down conductors placed inside the blade
- conducting materials for the blade surface.
3.2. Protection against Fatigue
- adequate prediction of the blade’s material behaviour versus fatigue and its structural properties
- appropriate selection of the wind park’s installation site and the optimum siting of the wind turbines.
- visual testing
- ultrasonic testing
- thermography
- radiographic testing
- acoustic emission.
3.3. Protection against Erosion
3.4. Protection against Icing
3.5. Operating Strategies
- shutdown of the wind turbine in case of severe damage or adverse weather conditions
- selective shutdown or reduced operation, depending on the wind direction, of one or more wind turbines in case they affect the operation of the damaged turbine with their wake [136]
- controlled operation of the damaged wind turbine in order to minimize power production loss, while concurrently executing the repair process.
4. Conclusions
- A common conclusion from the evaluation of potential causes of wind turbine blade damage is the ultimate significance of the surrounding environment and the existing weather conditions. The appropriate selection of a wind park’s installation site and the adequate siting of the wind turbines can eliminate induced fatigue loads. Additionally, in mild weather conditions, the probability of damage from lightning, icing and leading edge erosion also can be minimised.
- In any case, it was revealed that there is no absolute method for guaranteed protection against any potential damage. All of the developed techniques and approaches contribute to the reduction of damage risk; however none of them can eliminate it.
- In general, to facilitate operation and maintenance in adverse climates, a SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) system can be of considerable assistance, e.g., with ice detection, lightning damage or vibration monitoring. Important information includes, for example, ambient temperature, visibility at the site, web camera photos of rotor blades, turbine wind sensors, rotor rotating speed, etc. The supervisory system aims to detect and handle any damage at an initial stage, thus eliminating any potential technical or economic impact on the normal operation of the wind turbine and minimising repair costs.
- Attempting a qualitative approach to the potential causes of wind turbine blade damage, we should mention that lightning can induce the most severe damage, even the total destruction of the blade. This can also be caused by fatigue loads after a long period of repetitive dynamic loading. However, destruction due to fatigue loads can be easily prevented with the appropriate selection of the installation site, the correct siting of the wind turbines and inspections of their operation. This, in general, cannot be achieved with lightning, because it commonly exists everywhere and abruptly, in a manner that cannot be either prevented or controlled. Hence, once it has occurred, the resulting damage cannot be avoided or limited in terms of severity. Conversely, although fatigue can potentially cause more severe and important damage to the wind turbine’s structure because it evolves over time, its impact can be prevented at the initial stage through proper inspections of the turbine’s operation, avoiding in this way its destructive results.
- Icing cannot be destructive to the blade’s structure, except under very extreme conditions. However, the accumulation of ice on blade surfaces for long time periods (e.g., for an entire winter period) can lead to considerable reductions in wind turbine performance, eventually causing a corresponding negative impact to the project’s economic efficiency, analogous to, or even higher than, the cost of repairing a turbine blade struck by lightning.
- Leading edge erosion seems to be the milder form of potential damage to a wind turbine blade, as it affects only the outer coating of the blade and cannot be a risk to the blade’s structure in any case. It can be easily repaired if it is detected in time.
- All forms of blade damage can seriously affect the aerodynamic performance of the wind turbine and, consequently, its annual electricity production. For example, the reduction in electricity production due to icing can exceed 10%, while in extreme cases, it can reach 30%. Similarly, the increased roughness of the blade’s outer surface due to leading edge erosion can cause a 5% reduction in annual electricity production through an increased drag coefficient. Lightning and fatigue can also lead to significant production losses when the turbine has to be shut down for maintenance or repair, or, in the worst-case scenario, when the blade has been destroyed.
- Wind turbine blade repair costs depend on the severity of the damage. A blade damaged by lightning may require up to USD 30,000 to be repaired, while the total cost of replacing a destroyed blade can cost up to USD 200,000. In general, the three blades of a wind turbine together account for 15% to 20% of the wind turbine’s total manufacturing cost. Additionally, each day during which a wind turbine remains inoperative due to blade damage imposes income losses ranging from USD 800 to USD 1600, depending on the available wind potential. These figures highlight the significance of wind turbine blade damage to the performance of a wind park and the economic efficiency of the wind project.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Material | Maximum Moisture Absorption (%) | Stiffness Change (%) | Fatigue Strength Reduction (Cycles) |
---|---|---|---|
Glass polyester | 4 | −10 | −35 × 103–−10 × 107 |
Glass epoxy | 2 | −10 | −20 × 103–−5 × 107 |
Carbon polyester | 1.5 | 1 | ±0 |
Carbon epoxy | 1.5 | 1 | |
Glass—carbon epoxy | <2 | ±0 |
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Katsaprakakis, D.A.; Papadakis, N.; Ntintakis, I. A Comprehensive Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade Damage. Energies 2021, 14, 5974. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185974
Katsaprakakis DA, Papadakis N, Ntintakis I. A Comprehensive Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade Damage. Energies. 2021; 14(18):5974. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185974
Chicago/Turabian StyleKatsaprakakis, Dimitris Al., Nikos Papadakis, and Ioannis Ntintakis. 2021. "A Comprehensive Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade Damage" Energies 14, no. 18: 5974. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185974