Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder’s Impact on Quality of Life, and the Role of Physical Activity
Abstract
:1. Brief History
2. Definition and Diagnosis
3. Epidemiology and Etiology
4. PMS, PMDD, and Quality of Life
5. Physical Activity
6. Conclusions and Future Directions
- High PMS levels correlate with increased stress and lower quality of life;
- PMDD, a severe extension, disrupts work and relationships, correlating with psychiatric comorbidity and increased medical costs;
- Exercise is recommended for managing PMS symptoms, offering benefits like improved hormonal balance and psychological well-being;
- Aerobic exercise, 30 min, 3–5 times weekly, shows effectiveness in reducing physical PMS symptoms;
- Non-pharmacological therapies, including exercise, are primary treatments per ACOG guidelines;
- Future research should focus on personalized exercise recommendations for women with premenstrual symptoms.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Premenstrual Syndrome | Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder | |
---|---|---|
Definition | PMS refers to a group of physical and behavioral symptoms that occur in a cyclic pattern during the second half of the menstrual cycle. | PMDD is a neuro-hormonal gynecological disorder. It is the severe form of PMS. |
Signs and symptoms | Variations in appetite, gaining weight, discomfort in the abdomen, pain in the back (especially the lower back), headaches, breast swelling and sensitivity, feelings of nausea, constipation, heightened anxiety, irritability, anger, fatigue, restlessness, mood fluctuations, and episodes of crying. | PMDD symptomatology encompasses a multifaceted array of mood-related, behavioral, and somatic manifestations: mood lability, sadness, anxiety, lack of energy and persistent fatigue, changes in appetite, joint or muscle aches, and a sensation of bloating or weight gain. |
Diagnostic criteria | There is no test for PMS or PMDD. To be diagnosed with PMS or PMDD, a woman must have the symptoms that must occur before her menstrual period and disappear after the onset of the period. | It is classified in the DSM-5-TR as a mental illness. The criteria for PMDD require that the woman experience at least 5 of 11 cognitive-affective, behavioural, and physical symptoms during the final week of the luteal phase that resolve with or near the onset of menses. Symptoms must also remit post-menses, and not represent an exacerbation of another psychiatric disorder. |
Epidemiology Worldwide | 47.8% [16]. | 1.2–6.4% |
Etiology | The exact etiology is not known | The exact etiology is not known |
Risk factors | The primary risk factors associated with PMS and PMDD included a negative rhesus blood type, the age of menarche, intake of caffeine, and self-reported depression [17]. | Traumatic events and pre-existing anxiety disorders are risk factors for the development of PMDD [18]. |
Specific genes | Recent research has offered evidence supporting the participation of the gene responsible for coding the serotonergic 5HT1A receptor and allelic variations in the estrogen receptor alpha gene (ESR1) at the onset of PMS/PMDD [19,20]. | Recent research has offered evidence supporting the participation of the gene responsible for coding the serotonergic 5HT1A receptor and allelic variations in the estrogen receptor alpha gene (ESR1) at the onset of PMS/PMDD [19,20]. |
Managment | The use of a combination of medications (such as anxiolytics, gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists, spironolactone, and oral contraceptive pills) alongside nonpharmacological approaches, primarily involving cognitive and behavioral therapies, exercises, massage therapy, light therapy, and dietary/nutritional adjustments, has demonstrated effectiveness in treating premenstrual symptoms. | Treatment modalities for PMDD can be divided into two groups: non-pharmacological methods as exercise, dietary modifications, stress management with relaxation, meditation and breathing techniques. Pharmacological methods are psychotropic agents and hormonal therapies for suppression of ovulation. |
Suicidability | There was no significant association between PMS and suicide attempts (OR: 1.85; 95% CI: 0.77–4.46, p = 0.17). Women with PMS are at increased risk of suicidal ideation, but not suicide attempts [13]. | PMDD diagnosis increased the risk of suicide attempts by approximately sevenfold (OR: 6.97; 95% CI: 2.98–16.29, p < 0.001). PMDD diagnosis increased the risk of suicidal ideation by approximately fourfold (OR: 3.95; 95% CI: 2.97–5.24, p < 0.001) [13]. |
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Liguori, F.; Saraiello, E.; Calella, P. Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder’s Impact on Quality of Life, and the Role of Physical Activity. Medicina 2023, 59, 2044. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59112044
Liguori F, Saraiello E, Calella P. Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder’s Impact on Quality of Life, and the Role of Physical Activity. Medicina. 2023; 59(11):2044. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59112044
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiguori, Fabrizio, Emma Saraiello, and Patrizia Calella. 2023. "Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder’s Impact on Quality of Life, and the Role of Physical Activity" Medicina 59, no. 11: 2044. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59112044
APA StyleLiguori, F., Saraiello, E., & Calella, P. (2023). Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder’s Impact on Quality of Life, and the Role of Physical Activity. Medicina, 59(11), 2044. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59112044