Evaluation of Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Activity, and Anticancer Potential of Wild Ganoderma lucidum Extracts from High-Altitude Regions of Nepal
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Collection and Identification
2.3. Sample Preparation and Extraction
2.4. Estimation of Total Phenolic, Flavonoid, β-Carotene, and Lycopene
2.4.1. Total Phenolic Content
2.4.2. Total Flavonoid Content
2.4.3. Estimation of β-Carotene and Lycopene Content
β-carotene = (0.216 × A663) − (0.304 × A505) + (0.452 × A453)
2.5. Determination of In Vitro Antioxidant Activities
2.5.1. DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1-Picryl-Hydrazyl) Assay
2.5.2. Superoxide Radical Scavenging Assay
2.5.3. Hydroxyl Radical Scavenging Assay
2.5.4. Nitric Oxide Radical Scavenging Assay
2.5.5. Reducing Power Assay
2.6. MTT Cell Viability Assay
2.7. Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Analysis
2.8. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Extraction Yield
3.2. Estimation of Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Content
3.3. Estimation of β-Carotene and Lycopene
3.4. Comparative In Vitro Antioxidant Activities
3.4.1. DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
3.4.2. Superoxide Radical Scavenging Activity
3.4.3. Hydroxyl Radical Scavenging Activity
3.4.4. Nitric Oxide Radical Scavenging Activity
3.4.5. Reducing Power Assay
3.5. MTT-Based Viability Assay in HeLa Cells
3.6. IC50 Comparison of Extraction Solvents for Antioxidant and Cytotoxicity Activities
3.7. Solvent-Dependent Variation in Bioactive Compounds via GC-MS Profiling
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
GWE | Ganoderma lucidum water extract |
GEE | Ganoderma lucidum ethanol extract |
GME | Ganoderma lucidum methanol extract |
GAE | Ganoderma lucidum acetone extract |
TPC | Total phenolic content |
TFP | Total flavonoid content |
DPPH | 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl |
MTT | 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide |
GC-MS | Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry |
LTP | Long-term potentiation |
MRSA | Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus |
HeLa | Human cervical carcinoma cell lines |
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Parameter | Description |
---|---|
Collection month | September–October |
Location | Chandragiri Hill, Kathmandu, Nepal |
Elevation | 7482 ft (2280 m) above sea level |
Coordinates | Latitude: 27.67402° N; Longitude: 85.19874° E |
Ecosystem type | Solitary |
Substrate | Wood, stump, log, stick, base of tree, bark |
Host tree | Quercus lanata |
Rot type | White-rot |
Surrounding trees | Predominantly hardwoods |
Basidiocarp size Texture | 6–10 cm × 4–16 cm × 1.3 cm Woody to corky |
Stipe | Sub-sessile to laterally stipitate, 2–3 cm |
Pileus shape | Reniform |
Upper surface | Laccate, dark reddish to purplish, yellowish at margins; brittle, soft |
Margin | Blunt, rounded, brown-white |
Pore surface | Creamy to milky coffee; ~5 pores/mm |
Tube layer | 2–9 mm long, white turning brown when brushed or aged |
Context | 9 mm thick, brown, without horny deposition |
Cutis type | Thick-walled claviform with diverticula; 35–42 × 6–8.5 µm |
Hyphal system | Trimitic: Generative (3.3 µm, hyaline, thin-walled, with clamp); Skeletal (5.8–7.5 µm, brown, thick); Binding (5–7.5 µm, brown) |
Basidiospores | 8.3–10 × 6.6 µm; yellowish-brown |
Identification authority | Prof. Mahesh Kumar Adhikari, Dept. of Plant Resources, Kathmandu |
Extract | Weight of Sample Before Extraction (gm) | Weight Obtained After Extraction (gm) | % Yield Value |
---|---|---|---|
Water | 10 | 0.229 | 2.29 d |
Ethanol | 10 | 0.343 | 3.43 b |
Methanol | 10 | 0.298 | 2.98 c |
Acetone | 10 | 0.501 | 5.01 a |
Compound Name | Solvent Extracts (% Area) | Compound Class | Key Pharmacological Relevance | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GEE | GME | GAE | ||||
7,22-Ergostadienone | 3.54 | 2.90 | 2.56 | Sterol | Antithrombotic activity with cardiovascular benefit; antidiabetic, anticancer, and neuroprotective effects; pro-inflammatory properties (activating Toll-like receptors, cytokines, and chemokines) | [37,40,41,42,43] |
9(11)-Dehydroergosteryl 3,5-dinitrobenzoate | 2.90 | 3.13 | 2.70 | Sterol conjugate | Anti-inflammatory; antibacterial (MRSA and S. aureus); and cytotoxic properties | [44,45] |
δ-Tocopherol | 2.13 | 3.91 | 0.75 | Tocopherol | Antioxidant; anti-inflammatory (primarily Via inhibiting protein kinase C and reducing eicosanoid production); anticancer (both in vitro and in vivo prostate xenograft models); cardioprotective and neuroprotective | [46,47] |
4-[5-(2-bromophenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl]-1,2,5-oxadiazol-3-amine | - | - | 0.35 | Synthetic heterocycle | Anticancer (potentially via targeting topoisomerase II relaxation activity); antibacterial; anti-inflammatory; analgesic properties; antioxidant | [48,49,50,51,52] |
Ergosta-tetraenone | 3.86 | - | 1.67 | Sterol derivative | Anticancer (Via G2/M arrest and apoptosis induction); nephroprotection (mitigation of renal damage in mouse model); anti-inflammatory | [53,54,55] |
Ergosterol | - | - | 73.99 | Sterol | Vitamin D2 precursor; lipid soluble antioxidant; anticancer effects (cell cycle arrest and modulates Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway); antimicrobial; antidiabetic; immunomodulatory effects | [56,57,58] |
Ferruginol | 3.18 | - | - | Abietane diterpene | Anticancer (apoptosis induction in melanoma, prostate, lung, and ovarian cancer cells); neuroprotective (reduces α-synuclein toxicity and restores LTP in Alzheimer’s models); cardioprotective (both in vitro and in vivo models); antimicrobial and antiviral | [59,60,61,62,63,64,65] |
Geranylgeraniol | 5.26 | - | 0.89 | Diterpenoid alcohol | Anti-inflammatory (NF-κB inhibition; ↓ IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2); pain relief; bone and muscle support (muscle regeneration and prevents bisphosphonate-related bone damage); antimicrobial activity; hormonal balance; glucose homeostasis | [66,67,68,69] |
Hinokione | 2.9 | 5.5 | 0.9 | Abietane diterpene | Anticancer; anti-inflammatory; hypoglycemic and β-Cell regenerative properties (promotes β-cell differentiation and improved glycemia in zebrafish); antibacterial; antioxidant | [70,71,72] |
Nerolidol acetate | - | 1.70 | - | Sesquiterpene ester | Anticancer; anti-inflammatory; neuroprotective; antimicrobial; antifungal; antioxidant | [73,74,75] |
Retinoic acid | - | - | 0.50 | Retinoid | Acne and photoaging (promotes cell differentiation and skin repair); anticancer (induces differentiation of malignant promyelocytes in acute promyeloid leukemia); neuroprotective | [76,77,78] |
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Thapa, I.; Pandey, A.; Tiwari, S.; Awal, S.C. Evaluation of Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Activity, and Anticancer Potential of Wild Ganoderma lucidum Extracts from High-Altitude Regions of Nepal. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2025, 47, 624. https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb47080624
Thapa I, Pandey A, Tiwari S, Awal SC. Evaluation of Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Activity, and Anticancer Potential of Wild Ganoderma lucidum Extracts from High-Altitude Regions of Nepal. Current Issues in Molecular Biology. 2025; 47(8):624. https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb47080624
Chicago/Turabian StyleThapa, Ishor, Ashmita Pandey, Sunil Tiwari, and Suvash Chandra Awal. 2025. "Evaluation of Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Activity, and Anticancer Potential of Wild Ganoderma lucidum Extracts from High-Altitude Regions of Nepal" Current Issues in Molecular Biology 47, no. 8: 624. https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb47080624
APA StyleThapa, I., Pandey, A., Tiwari, S., & Awal, S. C. (2025). Evaluation of Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Activity, and Anticancer Potential of Wild Ganoderma lucidum Extracts from High-Altitude Regions of Nepal. Current Issues in Molecular Biology, 47(8), 624. https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb47080624