Thermographic Phosphors for High Temperature Measurements: Principles, Current State of the Art and Recent Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Historical Background
Phosphors
Thermographic Properties
3. Physical Principles of Luminescence
3.1 Basics of Luminescence
- emissions of photons equal to the energy-level difference
- energy transfer via quantised vibrational exchange (phonons) in the material
- other complex energy transfer mechanisms [2].
Vibrational Relaxation
Internal conversion
Fluorescence
Quenching
Intersystem crossing
- Phosphorescence transition to S0. This process is orders of magnitude slower than fluorescence. The energy level of T1 is lower than that of S1 and therefore the emission wavelength of phosphorescence is higher than that of fluorescence.
- Intersystem crossing from T1 to S0
- Quenching and other non-radiative transitions
- Delayed Florescence - This is when there is an intersystem transition back to S1. At this point, the entire process of relaxation back to the ground state starts again. If fluorescence occurs after this (from S1 to S0), this is known as ‘delayed florescence’. This has the spectrum of fluorescence but the time of phosphorescence.
3.1 Luminescence in Phosphors
- -
- Yttrium garnets e.g. Y3(Al,Ga)5012 , YAG
- -
- Yttrium oxides e.g. Y2O3
- -
- Oxysulfides e.g. La2O2S, Gd2O2S, Y2O2S
- -
- Vanadates e.g. VO3, VO4,V2O7
- -
- Yttrium/Lutetium phosphates e.g. YPO4, LuPO4
- -
- Others include: Al2O3, ZnS:Ag:Cl, LiGdF4, BeAl2O4
- Absorption and emission band widths
- Understanding of thermal quenching
4. Generic phosphor thermometry system and comparison with other techniques
- No upper temperature limit since radiation energy increases with temperature
- Fast response and does not have inherent thermal inertia of thermocouples
- Non-intrusive
- Routing problems are reduced
- Immunity to electromagnetic interferences from surrounding environment [23].
5. Different Response Modes
5.1 Intensity Mode
5.1 Intensity Ratio
5.2 Lifetime Decay Analysis
- Insensitive to non-uniform excitation
- Insensitive to dye concentrations/surface curvature/paint and thickness
- The approach can be used in high ambient light environments
- The system can take into account photo-degradation [25].
Lifetime Imaging
Frequency Domain Lifetime Decay
5.3 Risetime Analysis
5.4 Line Shift/Width Method
5.5 Absorption /Excitation Bands
6. Other factors
6.1 Activator concentrations
6.2 Saturation Effects
6.3 Oxygen quenching / Pressure
6.4 Impurities and Sensitizers
6.5 Particle size
7. Bonding Techniques
7.1 Chemical Bonding
7.1 Vapour Deposition
7.2 Flame /Plasma Spray
8. Consideration factors for high temperature measurements
- The limits of data acquisition sampling resolution is reached
- The detectors response time exceed
- Excitation pulse fall times can interfering with the decay time of the phosphor. The energy from a laser is relatively large and even through high optical density narrow band filters are used to block any reflected laser light, some light usually leaks through. If the luminescent decay lifetime is on the same order of magnitude as the fall curve of the laser pulse, then it may be difficult to discriminate between the two. The ideal pulsed light source should have very fast fall times.
9. Emissions Detection
9.1 Point Detection
Photomultiplier Tube (PMT)
Micro channel plate PMT
Photodiodes
Si Photomultipliers (SPM)
9.2 Imaging
CCD-Charge-Coupled Device
CMOS Imagers
Multi-port/Multi-gate CCDs
Intensified CCD (ICCD)
Digital APDs/Photon Imagers
Time delay integration (TDI)
Noise
10. Excitation Sources
10.1 Pulsed Laser Systems
Nd:YAG Laser Systems
Q switched diode pumped solid state (DPSS) laser
Excimer Lasers
10.2 Continuous lasers/light sources
10.3 Fibre Lasers
10.4 UV LEDS
11. Survey of recent applications using thermographic phosphor
11.1 Impinging Jet Flame Experiment
11.2 After burner experiments
11.3 Combustor Rig and Film Cooling
11.4 2D surface - Thermal lifetime imaging
11.5 Surface Temperature Measurements of decomposing materials
11.6 Internal Combustion Engine valve/piston temperature measurement
11.7 2D Gas Temperatures
11.8 Droplets and Spray thermography
11.9 Supersonic Combustor experiments
11.10 Hypersonic Wind tunnel testing
11.11 Smart Thermal Barrier Coatings
11.13 Galvanneal Process
12. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
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Energy Supplier: | Examples | |
---|---|---|
Chemi-luminescence | Chemical reactions | Glow in the dark plastic tubes, emergency light |
Bio-luminescence | A form of chemi-luminescence where is the energy is supplied by living organisms. | Fireflies, glowworms |
Electro-luminescence | Electric current | Certain watch displays e.g. Indiglo™ |
Cathode luminescence Radio-luminescence | Electron beam Nuclear radiation | CRT, televisions, Old glow in dark paints |
Mechanoluminescence | Is light emission resulting from any mechanical action on a solid | |
Triboluminescence | Some minerals glow when rubbed or scratched | Quartz crystal. |
Fractoluminescence | Caused by stress that results in the formation of fractures. | |
Sonoluminescence | The emission of short bursts of light from imploding bubbles in a liquid when excited by sound. | |
Photoluminescence | Light energy. Commonly UV or visible light. Also includes laser induced fluorescence. | Phosphors, pressure sensitive paints. |
Transition Example | Process | Rate | Typical Timescale |
---|---|---|---|
So → S1 | Excitation, Absorption | k(e) | Femtoseconds, 10−15 s |
Internal Conversion | k(ic) | Picoseconds, 10−12 s | |
Vibrational Relaxation | k(vr) | Picoseconds, 10−12 s | |
S1 → S0 (radiative) | Florescence | k(f) | Typically less than 10−8 s |
S1 → S0 (non radiative) | Quenching and other non radiative processes | k(nr), k(q) | 10−7 – 10−5 s |
S1 → T1 | Intersystem Crossing | k(pt) | 10−10 – 10−8 s |
T1 → S0 | Phosphorescence | k(p) | 10−3 – 100 s (earlier literature) > 10−8 s (recent literature) |
a) Lanthanides (rare earth ions) | b) Transition Metals | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ce | Cerium | Sc | Scandium | Cd | Cadmium |
Pr | Praseodymium | Ti | Titanium | Hf | Hafnium |
Nd | Neodymium | V | Vanadium | Ta | Tantalum |
Pm | Promethium | Cr | Chromium | W | Tungsten |
Sm | Samarium | Mn | Manganese | Re | Rhenium |
Eu | Europium | Fe | Iron | Os | Osmium |
Gd | Gadolinium | Co | Cobalt | Ir | Iridium |
Tb | Terbium | Ni | Nickel | Pt | Platinum |
Dy | Dysprosium | Cu | Copper | Au | Gold |
Ho | Holmium | Zn | Zinc | Hg | Mercury |
Er | Erbuim | Y | Yttrium | Rf | Rutherfordium |
Tm | Thulium | Zr | Zirconium | Db | Dubnium |
Yb | Ytterbium | Nb | Niobium | Gg | Seaborgium |
Lu | Lutetium | Mo | Molybdenum | Bh | Bohrium |
Tc | Technetium | Hs | Hassium | ||
Ru | Ruthenium | Mt | Meitnerium | ||
Rh | Rhodium | Uun | Ununnilium | ||
Pd | Palladium | Uuu | Unununium | ||
Ag | Silver | Uub | Ununbium |
Method | Disadvantage/Limitation |
---|---|
Thermocouples | Intrusive Limited number Costly installation Bonding to ceramic surfaces Electromagnetic Interference Difficult to use on rotating components |
Thermal Paints | Intrusive Time consuming (calibration and experiment) Irreversible Discrete values and poor resolutionCostly |
Pyrometry | Sensitive to stray light Changes in emissivity Translucency of ceramic coatings Cleanness of optics |
Thermographic Phosphor | Decreasing signals with increasing temperatures Bonding of the phosphor Phosphor coating can be intrusive |
Two camera | Filter Wheel + Single camera | |
---|---|---|
Schematic | ||
Signal capture | This system measures signals simultaneously. | This system measures both signals sequentially. Software is used separates out individual signals. |
Alignment between images | Physical 3D alignment is required and errors may be induced. | The same camera and its position can eliminate many errors caused by alignment and CCD defects. |
Mechanics | No moving parts | Reliable mechanical parts are required with repeatability to enable good signal separation. |
Other | Flat field correction is required. |
Equation | Effect if the knr value (or temperature) is increased |
---|---|
λ (the decay rate constant) will be increased. Hence, the decay lifetime of the transition will be decreased | |
If the knr term is increased, the probability of radiative transition will be decreased. If the temperature is very high, this probability will yield to zero. (impossible) | |
If the knr term is increased, the probability of non-radiative transition will increase, yielding to 1 (certainty) at high temperatures. |
Binder | Composition | Max temp of both survivability and observed fluorescence. (ºC) |
---|---|---|
Sperex SP115 | Silicone Resin | About 1,000 |
Sauerisen thinning | Soluble sodium silicate | 1,204 |
liquid | Water based | |
ZYP – BNSL | Glassy carbon and magnesium aluminium silicate | |
ZYP – HPC | Alcohol and acetone based magnesium aluminium silicate water based | 1,500 |
ZYP – LK | 75% SiO2, 20% K2O, 5% LiO2. Water based | 1,100 |
ZYP-LRC | Water based | Tested successfully up to 1,400 |
ZYP – ZAP | water-alcohol-based binder | Up to 1,600 (YAG:Dy) |
Coltronics Resbond | 791, 792 Silicate Glass, 793 Silica Oxide 795 -Alumina Oxide | up to 1,600 |
Standard Photo-diodes | Avalanche Photodiode s APD | Conventional Photo Multiplier Tubes (PMTs) | Micro-channel plate PMT ( MCP-PMTs ) | Si Photo-multipliers (SPM, SiPM) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gain | None | Low gain (x10-300) | High Gain (106) | High Gain (106) Typical = 5 ×105 | High Gain (106) Much higher gains than APDs. Same region as PMTs. |
Bias V | High (800V) | High (kV) | Low (30V) | ||
Sensitivity | Typically < 1 A/W | 25 A/W @ 520 nm30 A/W @ 1,064 nm | 40,000 A/W @ 520 nm(SensL)[67]Sensitivity: 110 uA/lmAnode sens:500 A/lm (nominal);2,000 A/lm (max) | Very highCathodesensitivity>1,200 uA/lm (min), 1,500 (typical)(Burle)[62] | 60,000 A/W @ 520 nm (micro)130,000 A/W @520 nm (mini)1,000 A/W @ 1,064nm |
Response to excess light | Some PIN damaged | Some APDs are damaged | Damage | Tolerant | |
Area | Small | Small | Large diameters-e.g. 46mm.Arrays are impossible | Small (1×1 mm2)large areas up to 9mm2 available.Building larger arrays is possible. | |
Rise/Fall Times -response | Trise = 0.1microseconds | Can be operated at 2,000 MHz. (therefore ns) | Rise time: 1 ns. | Faster thanPMTs.100 picoseconds | <5ns |
Quantum Efficiencies | Higher than PMTs | Higher than PMTs | 20-30% at peak | >20% at peak | 40% @ 520 nm at peak |
SNR (signal to noise) | Low | Low. | HighPMTs offer a higher gain, larger detection area and superior SNR compared to APDs | High –SNR to be similar, and in some cases better than PMTs. | |
Other notes | Robust | Robust | Fragile, affected by magnetic, electromagnetic interference. | Excellent for pulsed light. | Robust |
© 2008 by the authors; licensee Molecular Diversity Preservation International, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
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Khalid, A.H.; Kontis, K. Thermographic Phosphors for High Temperature Measurements: Principles, Current State of the Art and Recent Applications. Sensors 2008, 8, 5673-5744. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8095673
Khalid AH, Kontis K. Thermographic Phosphors for High Temperature Measurements: Principles, Current State of the Art and Recent Applications. Sensors. 2008; 8(9):5673-5744. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8095673
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhalid, Ashiq Hussain, and Konstantinos Kontis. 2008. "Thermographic Phosphors for High Temperature Measurements: Principles, Current State of the Art and Recent Applications" Sensors 8, no. 9: 5673-5744. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8095673
APA StyleKhalid, A. H., & Kontis, K. (2008). Thermographic Phosphors for High Temperature Measurements: Principles, Current State of the Art and Recent Applications. Sensors, 8(9), 5673-5744. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8095673