Diversion Detection in Small-Diameter HDPE Pipes Using Guided Waves and Deep Learning
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- To propose, design, and test piezoelectric transducer arrays, electronic circuits, signal designing and processing, and DNN models required to develop a DNN-based UGW detection scheme.
- To implement and evaluate a DNN-based UGW detection scheme, for detecting diversions in HDPE pipes.
2. System Specifications
3. Signal Design and Processing
3.1. Transmitted Signal Design
3.2. Received Signal Processing
4. Data Collection
5. DNN Architectures
5.1. CNN Based Model
5.2. LSTM Based Models
5.3. CNN-LSTM Based Models
5.4. Multilayer Perceptron
6. Experimental Protocol and Results Discussion
6.1. Experimental Protocols
- Accuracy: The accuracy is the percentage of data points that are classified correctly by the algorithm over the total number of data points. Mathematically, the accuracy can be expressed as
- AUC: The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC) is a metric that measures the ability of a classifier to distinguish between classes across all possible classification thresholds. Therefore, it measures the performance of a model irrespective of the classification threshold.
- Precision: If it is required to evaluate a model only on classifying the positive samples, precision is used. Precision is the ratio of positive samples classified correctly to total positive samples, which can be expressed as
- Recall: The recall describes the ratio of correctly classified positive samples over the total number of the positive samples, which is given by
- F1-score: F1-score is the harmonic mean of the precision and the recall values, which can be expressed as
6.2. Discussion of the Results
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dataset | Control | Diversion | Total |
---|---|---|---|
Training | 718 | 886 | 1604 |
Validation | 104 | 125 | 229 |
Testing | 184 | 275 | 459 |
Model | Performance Metrics | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Accuracy | Recall | Precision | F1-Score | AUC | |
LSTM | 0.655 (±0.021) | 0.845 (±0.036) | 0.708 (±0.017) | 0.767 (±0.004) | 0.637 (±0.001) |
2-LSTM | 0.638 (±0.0242) | 0.909 (±0.04) | 0.627 (±0.025) | 0.74 (±0.003) | 0.627 (±0.048) |
CNN | 0.821 (±0.04) | 0.921 (±0.04) | 0.79 (±0.064) | 0.85 (±0.026) | 0.915 (±0.02) |
2-CNN | 0.837 (±0.0167) | 0.89 (±0.036) | 0.83 (±0.038) | 0.85 (±0.01) | 0.92 (±0.009) |
CNN-LSTM | 0.801 (±0.03) | 0.822 (±0.13) | 0.82 (±0.061) | 0.81 (±0.05) | 0.890 (±0.01) |
CNN-(2-LSTM) | 0.822 (±0.04) | 0.77 (±0.12) | 0.91 (±0.05) | 0.82 (±0.06) | 0.920 (±0.006) |
(2-CNN)-LSTM | 0.903 (±0.02) | 0.9014 (±0.06) | 0.905 (±0.04) | 0.921 (±0.025) | 0.926 (±0.006) |
Model | Performance Metrics | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Accuracy | Recall | Precision | F1-Score | AUC | |
LSTM | 0.544 (±0.037) | 0.817 (±0.291) | 0.58 (±0.150) | 0.61 (±0.104) | 0.562 (±0.067) |
2-LSTM | 0.58 (±0.0182) | 0.891 (±0.197) | 0.64 (±0.121) | 0.71 (±0.064) | 0.6185 (±0.118) |
CNN | 0.991 (±0.007) | 0.9991 (±0.002) | 0.995 (±0.004) | 0.999 (±0.0002) | 0.995 (±0.004) |
2-CNN | 0.997 (±0.003) | 0.997 (±0.003) | 0.998 (±0.003) | 0.998 (±0.002) | 0.997 (±0.0094) |
CNN-LSTM | 0.996 (±0.00065) | 0.992 (±0.007) | 0.998 (±0.001) | 0.999 (±0.0004) | 0.998 (±0.0045) |
CNN-(2-LSTM) | 0.993 (±0.00130) | 0.994 (±0.008) | 0.993 (±0.002) | 0.992 (±0.00098) | 0.994 (±0.0031) |
(2-CNN)-LSTM | 0.996 (±0.001) | 0.998 (±0.006) | 0.998 (±0.0023) | 0.999 (±0.00003) | 0.999 (±0.0023) |
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Zayat, A.; Obeed, M.; Chaaban, A. Diversion Detection in Small-Diameter HDPE Pipes Using Guided Waves and Deep Learning. Sensors 2022, 22, 9586. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249586
Zayat A, Obeed M, Chaaban A. Diversion Detection in Small-Diameter HDPE Pipes Using Guided Waves and Deep Learning. Sensors. 2022; 22(24):9586. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249586
Chicago/Turabian StyleZayat, Abdullah, Mohanad Obeed, and Anas Chaaban. 2022. "Diversion Detection in Small-Diameter HDPE Pipes Using Guided Waves and Deep Learning" Sensors 22, no. 24: 9586. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249586
APA StyleZayat, A., Obeed, M., & Chaaban, A. (2022). Diversion Detection in Small-Diameter HDPE Pipes Using Guided Waves and Deep Learning. Sensors, 22(24), 9586. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249586