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Review

Diverse Utilization of Bidens pilosa and Prospects for Sustainable Management

by
Li-Li Zhong
1,2,
Xing-Song Zhou
1,3,
Bin-Sheng Luo
4,
Ruo-Zhu Lin
5,
Shi Shi
1,* and
Fei-Fei Li
2,*
1
College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510624, China
2
Beijing Botanical Garden, Beijing 100093, China
3
South China Botanical Garden, Guangzhou 510650, China
4
Lushan Botanical Garden, Jiangxi Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jiujiang 332900, China
5
Key Laboratory of Forest Protection of the National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Nature Conservation, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diversity 2026, 18(6), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/d18060349
Submission received: 21 April 2026 / Revised: 4 June 2026 / Accepted: 4 June 2026 / Published: 7 June 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Diversity Discovery and Resource Utilization)
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Abstract

Bidens pilosa L. (Asteraceae), a globally invasive weed native to the Americas, is widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions and is listed as invasive alien species in many countries. Despite its ecological hazards, it possesses a long history of traditional use and substantial resource potential that remains incompletely synthesized. This review systematically compiles ethnobotanical records from 15 countries, documenting 60 traditional medicinal indications across 14 disease categories spanning Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. A structured cross-referencing analysis reveals that 26 (43.33%) of these traditional applications are supported by 17 verified pharmacological mechanisms, mediated by 19 classes of bioactive compounds, principally flavonoids, polyacetylenes, and phenolic acids. Among these, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antitumor, and antimicrobial activities are the most consistently validated. Moreover, this review synthesizes four non-medicinal utilization pathways: dietary use, animal feed, environmental remediation, and industrial raw materials. The resource value of B. pilosa has been independently recognized in the native and introduced ranges alike. Building on this evidence, we propose a “control-through-utilization” framework. To mitigate potential risks in practical exploitation, three targeted strategies are put forward, including timely harvesting, on-site processing and heavy metal safety inspection. This review supports the sustainable management of B. pilosa and offers methodological references for resource exploitation and control of other invasive plants.

1. Introduction

Biological invasion is widely acknowledged as one of the most pressing ecological challenges of the globalized era [1,2]. According to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES, 2023), more than 3500 species have been documented as invasive alien species (IAS), with the annual economic costs of biological invasions exceeding $423 billion [3]. Invasive plant species often significantly alter animal habitats, which is a global problem [4,5]. The effective management of invasive plants has thus become a priority for conservation biology and sustainable development.
Traditional prevention and control methods, including physical, chemical, and biological control, can suppress invasions in the short term but are constrained by high costs, secondary pollution, herbicide resistance, and limited long-term efficacy [6,7,8,9]. Moreover, these approaches treat invasive species purely as a negative factor for ecosystems, overlooking potential opportunities to convert biomass into valuable resources. The high costs and limited effectiveness of traditional methods have prompted researchers to explore alternative management paradigms. An emerging approach in invasion management is “control-through-utilization”, which seeks to generate market demand, which in turn guides sustainable harvesting under targeted human intervention, thereby fostering a virtuous cycle of invasive plant control and resource utilization. This approach has been demonstrated with Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (Fabaceae Prosopis, 1825) in East Africa, where community-based harvesting for animal feed and charcoal production has simultaneously suppressed invasion spread and generated local livelihoods [10,11].
Bidens ilosa L. (Asteraceae), native to the Americas, is among the most aggressive invasive weeds in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide [12,13,14]. In China, it is listed in the Catalogue of Key Managed Invasive Alien Species and is now widely distributed across the country, from southern tropical regions to northern temperate zones [15,16,17,18]. In terms of reproductive capacity, B. ilosa exhibits distinct advantages in both sexual and asexual reproduction. Through sexual reproduction, a single individual can produce thousands of seeds characterized by pronounced dormancy [19], which germinate rapidly once environmental conditions are optimal [20]. In addition, when the lateral branches of B. alba (treated here within the broad circumscription of B. ilosa) grow downward and come into contact with moist soil, adventitious roots emerge, giving rise to new ramets [21]. Furthermore, the achenes of B. ilosa possess retrorsely barbed pappi that facilitate effortless attachment to animal fur and human clothing, enabling long-distance dispersal mediated by wind, water currents, and agricultural activities [22]. Moreover, studies indicate that the aqueous extracts, decomposing residues, and volatiles of B. ilosa inhibit the growth and development of competitors by altering the rhizosphere microbial community and releasing allelochemicals, thereby driving its cross-regional invasion [1,23,24].
Notably, the taxonomic boundary between B. ilosa and the closely related B. alba L. remains contentious. While recent morphological, cytological, and breeding-system evidence supports their recognition as distinct species [25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32], many major databases and floristic works still treat B. alba as a variety or a synonym of B. ilosa (i.e., B. ilosa var. radiata (Sch.-Bip.) J. A. Schmidt) [33]. This prolonged ambiguity has caused the vast majority of published studies to use the name “B. ilosa” without distinguishing between the two taxa, and retrospective differentiation is often impossible [20,34,35,36,37]. Accordingly, the present review adopts a broad circumscription of B. ilosa and incorporates studies that explicitly identify B. alba as the study subject in order to ensure comprehensive coverage of the relevant literature (Figure 1).
Despite its invasiveness, B. ilosa has a long history of utilization across Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania for the treatment of wounds, inflammation, fever, diabetes, hypertension, and skin disorders [34,35,38]. Modern pharmacological research has verified that it is rich in flavonoids, polyacetylenes, and phenolic acids with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antitumor, and metabolic regulatory activities [39,40,41,42,43]. Furthermore, it shows potential in food, animal feed, cosmetics, and phytoremediation applications [44,45,46,47,48,49,50].
However, these resource values have yet to be incorporated into the invasion management of B. ilosa, and existing research remains fragmented. Pharmacological studies have overlooked the invasive context, while ecological studies have neglected resource values, hindering the development of an integrated “control-through-utilization” framework [51]. Therefore, this review systematically synthesizes the traditional uses, bioactive constituents, and modern pharmacological evidence of B. ilosa, and discusses the feasibility and prospects of its resource utilization as a component of sustainable invasion management in China. This study aims to provide a replicable framework for bridging resource utilization and invasion management that may apply to other invasive plant species.

2. Material and Methods

Literature searches were conducted in CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) and Google Scholar for published studies relevant to the biology and taxonomy of Bidens pilosa. The search period spanned from 2000 to January 2026, with the search terms set as “Bidens pilosa” or “Bidens alba”, combined with one of the following keywords: distribution, taxonomy, invasion status, medicinal use, ethnobotany, edible use, resource utilization, biological activity, or invasion management.
Studies were eligible for inclusion if they (1) had B. pilosa or B. alba as the main study subject and (2) provided extractable information on traditional uses, bioactive constituents, pharmacological mechanisms, or non-medicinal utilization. Studies were excluded if they (1) mentioned the species only incidentally without substantive relevant content or (2) were inaccessible in full text or provided insufficient information for extraction. A total of 144 references were finally selected.
The records concerning human medicinal use were then analyzed further, and three categories of information were extracted: (1) the geographic origin of each use, including the country and continent; (2) the traditional disease category and the specific ailment treated; and (3) the corresponding modern pharmacological mechanism and the responsible bioactive constituents. These records were used for the quantitative and graphical analyses, whereas the other utilization types were synthesized narratively. Chord and alluvial diagrams were generated in RAWGraphs 2.0 to show the frequency of disease categories across continents and to illustrate the correspondence among traditional uses, modern pharmacological mechanisms, and active substances, respectively.

3. Results

3.1. Traditional Medicinal Uses

Bidens pilosa has been used in traditional medicine across 15 countries spanning Latin America (Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, Peru, and Brazil), Africa (Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Cameroon, Zimbabwe, Kenya, and Ethiopia), Asia (China, India, and the Philippines), and Oceania (Fiji). A synthesis of the ethnobotanical literature reveals 60 documented indications, which can be classified into 14 disease categories, including animal bites (ABs), circulatory system diseases (CSDs), dermatological infections (DIDs), ear, nose and eye problems (ENTs), endocrine system disorders (ESDs), excretory and reproductive systems disorders (ERSDs), fever (FVR), gastrointestinal ailments (GIAs), hair care (HC), hepatobiliary system diseases (HSDs), neurological system disorders (NSCs), respiratory system diseases (RSDs), skeleto-muscular system disorders (SMSD), and tumors and cancer (TC) (Figure 2; Table 1).
The traditional medicinal applications of B. pilosa documented in the ethnobotanical literature vary considerably in both geographic breadth and recorded frequency (Figure 3). In terms of geographic coverage, RSD and ESD are reported across all four major regions (Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania). In terms of documentation frequency, RSD ranks first, with 20 records across eight countries, followed by ERSD (19 records, 10 countries) and GIA (13 records). Among the applications with broad geographic coverage, RSD encompasses 10 specific conditions, including colds, coughs, chronic bronchitis, and influenza, documented across eight countries on four continents. ESD records from seven countries across four continents (Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, Brazil, China, Kenya, Nigeria, and Fiji) focus uniformly on the management of diabetes, indicating that this application has been arrived at independently across unrelated medical traditions. The cross-continental recurrence of both categories in the absence of cultural exchange pathways provides ethnopharmacological grounds for inferring reproducible underlying mechanisms. In terms of documentation frequency, ERSD (19 records, 10 countries) encompasses a diverse range of conditions spanning urinary, reproductive, and digestive functions, including diuresis, urinary tract infection, promotion of labor, contraception, acute nephritis, and irregular menstruation, with records distributed across Latin America (Brazil, Peru, Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, and Colombia), Africa (Nigeria, Kenya, and Ethiopia), and Asia (China and India). GIA (13 records) encompasses eight specific conditions, including diarrhea, dysentery, gastralgia, dyspepsia, and acute appendicitis, documented across four countries on three continents. All eight conditions are recorded in China, while diarrhea and dyspepsia are additionally documented in Colombia and the Philippines, indicating a notably uneven geographic distribution of gastrointestinal applications in the literature.
In contrast, ENT, NSC, and HC show the most geographically restricted distribution in the literature. ENT is represented by a single record of xerophthalmia from China, and NSC by two records (neurasthenia and migraine), also exclusively from China. HC comprises two records (alopecia and dandruff), documented solely among communities in Peru. The restriction of these applications to single geographic localities suggests that they represent region-specific ethnobotanical knowledge.
Comparison between the native range (Latin America) and the introduced ranges (Africa, Asia, and Oceania) shows that introduced regions share 22 core uses recorded in Latin America but additionally document 38 medicinal applications absent from the native range. Of these novel applications, 17 (44.7%) have an above-average regional prevalence, as exemplified by the use of B. pilosa for skin infections in Kenya and Cameroon and for venomous snakebites in southern China and Kenya. Conversely, seven applications (31.8% of non-novel uses) remain unique to Latin America, including promoting labor, preventing alopecia, and treating gallstones. The traditional knowledge associated with this species therefore reflects a combination of widely shared uses and locally generated applications.

3.2. Modern Medicinal Research

Since 1950 [95], B. pilosa has been examined in modern pharmacological studies employing in vitro bioassays, network pharmacology, HPLC fingerprints, rodent disease models, and clinical observations. These studies confirm that its bioactive constituents, including polyacetylenes, flavonoids, phenolic acids, polysaccharides, saponins, and functional proteins, exert demonstrable effects on inflammation and immune regulation, microbial infection, oxidative stress, tumor growth, and metabolic disease.

3.2.1. Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Activities

B. pilosa has been characterized against dry eye disease, acute icteric hepatitis, colitis, veterinary pulmonary inflammation, and murine neuroinflammation, as well as in the alleviation of allergic responses [39,96,97,98]. These effects are mediated through the NF-κB, TLR, and MAPK signaling pathways [99,100,101]. The phenolic and flavonoid constituents of the plant [102,103,104,105] downregulate pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), upregulate IL-10, and suppress COX-2 and iNOS expression, accounting for its baseline anti-inflammatory activity [106]. In murine neuroinflammation models, total flavonoids additionally suppress MyD88 and PKC expression and reduce brain tissue NO levels, thereby attenuating hippocampal neuronal damage [96]. Immunomodulation of allergic responses is achieved through the regulation of lymphocyte proliferation, oxidative stress, and cytokine secretion [39].

3.2.2. Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities

B. pilosa is active against a range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and enterovirus 71 (EV71) and shows a free-radical-scavenging capacity in models of oxidative stress [107,108]. Its antibacterial and antiviral effects are mediated through the inhibition of NF-κB/p65 phosphorylation, blockade of viral replication, and suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokine production [109], whereas its antioxidant effects are mediated through the scavenging of free radicals such as DPPH and ABTS and the enhancement of antioxidant enzymes including SOD and GSH [110,111,112]. These activities are attributable primarily to flavonoid glycosides, caffeic acid and its derivatives, polyphenols, and polysaccharides [55].

3.2.3. Antitumor and Cytotoxic Activities

Multiple studies have confirmed the cytotoxic activity of B. pilosa against a range of malignant cell lines, including gastric, breast, esophageal, colon cancers, and leukemia [103,113,114,115,116,117,118], particularly in the gastric cancer cell lines SGC-7901 and HGC-27, with the effective inhibition of cancer cell invasion, metastasis, and in vitro proliferation [116,118]. Bioactive constituents responsible for this activity include polyacetylenes (notably root-derived polyacetylenes and their isomers), flavonoids (such as 3′,4′-dimethoxyquercetin), and functional proteins, which promote the expression of pro-apoptotic genes and suppress tumor cell proliferation and adhesion [119], while exerting targeted cytotoxicity through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), depletion of glutathione (GSH), and disruption of intracellular redox homeostasis [120]. These constituents exert antitumor activity through multiple key signaling pathways, including apoptosis induction, proliferation inhibition, and the regulation of redox homeostasis [119].

3.2.4. Modulatory Effects on Metabolic Diseases

The therapeutic effects of B. pilosa on diabetes, hyperlipidemia, and other metabolic diseases have been confirmed in multiple animal models and clinical observations [36,37,121]. Its ethyl acetate fraction significantly reduces total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels while elevating high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels in hyperlipidemic mice (with the n-butanol fraction showing comparable lipid-lowering effects) [121]. Crude extracts and the isolated polyacetylenic glycoside GHT (2-β-D-glucopyranosyloxy-1-hydroxytrideca-5,7,9,11-tetrayne) suppress adipocyte differentiation and lipid accumulation [122]. The total flavonoid fraction alleviates hypertension-induced myocardial fibrosis [123]. These metabolic regulatory effects are mediated principally through the Egr2/C/EBPs/PPARγ adipogenesis pathway, the PI3K/Akt/mTOR autophagy pathway, and the PERK/eIF2α/ATF4/CHOP endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway [122].

3.2.5. Other Bioactivities

In addition to the four major activity domains discussed above, systematic experimental evidence has also been documented for the anti-fatigue, anti-Alzheimer, and dermatological applications of B. pilosa. The ethanolic extract exhibits marked anti-fatigue activity in both acute exercise-induced fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) models, although a clear dose window has been observed, with high doses paradoxically inducing anxiety- and depression-like behavior [124]. The total flavonoid fraction ameliorates Alzheimer-like pathology in mice by reducing β-amyloid deposition and tau hyperphosphorylation and improving cholinergic function [125]. Fresh leaf juice accelerates wound closure with an efficacy comparable to the pharmaceutical agent BIAFINE (trolamine), while displaying concurrent immunomodulatory activity [126]. The supercritical CO2 extract promotes collagen synthesis [127]; combined application with andrographolide further improves skin elasticity through RXRα activation [48], and a clinical trial has confirmed improved skin firmness with the upregulation of col1a1a and eln1 expression [128].

3.2.6. Linking Modern Pharmacological Research to Traditional Medicinal Uses

The traditional applications of B. pilosa in treating 26 (43.33%) ailments have been validated through 17 modern pharmacological mechanisms, with these effects primarily mediated by 19 classes of bioactive compounds, among which, total flavonoids serve as the core active constituents (Figure 4 and Table 2). Among the first category with broad cross-regional consensus (RSD and ESD), the traditional interventions targeting diabetes, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia are supported by antidiabetic and hypolipidemic mechanisms, respectively. For instance, studies conducted in Mexico and Uganda demonstrated that the aqueous-alcoholic extracts of B. pilosa significantly ameliorated hyperglycemic symptoms in mice with mild diabetes [129,130]. Following the oral administration of its aqueous extract at a dose of 200 mg/kg for two weeks, fasting blood glucose levels in diabetic rats decreased markedly from 355.3 mg/dL to 164.5 mg/dL [130]. A human clinical trial conducted in China further showed that two-month treatment with single-ingredient B. pilosa granules reduced low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels by approximately 40% and substantially decreased triglyceride (TG) levels in patients with hyperlipidemia [131]. Among the third category, the traditional uses of B. pilosa for excretory and reproductive systems disorders (ERSDs) are supported by the anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and immunomodulatory mechanisms of ethanol and acetone extracts, while its traditional applications for gastrointestinal ailments (GIAs) are consistent with the anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anti-colitis mechanisms of bioactive constituents such as luteolin and quercetin. In contrast, the second category (ENT, NSC, and HC) remains largely unvalidated by modern pharmacological evidence, with no direct experimental data currently available to substantiate their traditional uses, a finding consistent with their low documentation frequency and limited geographic distribution.
In summary, flavonoids, polyacetylenes, polyphenols, and saponins are considered the principal bioactive components in B. pilosa, which underlie its therapeutic applications for conditions such as fever, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, cancer, wound healing, and inflammation.

3.3. Other Resource Utilization

The utilization value of B. pilosa extends well beyond medicine into dietary, feed, environmental, and industrial applications, paving the way for multi-pathway resource utilization.

3.3.1. Dietary and Nutritional Applications

Beyond its medicinal uses, B. pilosa is consumed as a wild vegetable or herbal tea in several regions worldwide, exemplifying the concept of “medicinal food homology”. In China, it is eaten by the Zhuang ethnic group in Guangxi and residents in Pu’er, Yunnan [44,132], and is used as an herbal tea supplement in Taiwan [94]. In the United States, young shoots of B. alba and other varieties are widely eaten as cooked vegetables in South Florida [133]. In Africa, it is recorded as a traditional vegetable in Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, and among different ethnic groups in northern Uganda, where its utilization patterns show notable culinary cultural specificity [65,134]. Nutritional analysis confirms that it is rich in amino acids and vitamins, particularly B1 and B2 [135].

3.3.2. Feed and Veterinary Applications

B. pilosa possesses nutritional components (crude protein, crude fat, and essential amino acids) comparable to conventional forage such as mulberry leaves, and its high biomass makes it a promising feed candidate. Feeding trials have demonstrated that B. pilosa supplements improve growth performance in swine [46,136], enhance survival and immune function in coccidia-infected poultry [112], and strengthen antibacterial capacity in hybrid grouper [137]. Its dry extracts are also effective in treating acute toxic hepatitis in dogs [138]. It shows broad applicability across livestock and aquaculture. However, palatability remains a limitation due to high crude fiber and flavonoid glycoside content, which may be addressed through fermentation processing.

3.3.3. Environmental Remediation

B. pilosa shows a strong tolerance and accumulation ability toward Cd, Pb, Cr, U, and other heavy metals. Its cadmium bioconcentration factor exceeds 1, with a cadmium removal rate of 4.3–6.2% per harvest per hectare, indicating practical potential for remediating heavy metal-contaminated farmland [49,139]. Remediation trials reveal that intercropping with Solanum nigrum, applying citric acid chelator, inoculating arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, or optimizing mowing methods can further improve remediation efficiency [25,140,141,142,143]. Endophytic bacterial strains with heavy metal tolerance and plant growth-promoting properties can synergistically enhance phytoremediation [144]. A study conducted in South Africa revealed that hydroponically cultivated B. pilosa can eliminate sulfates from industrial wastewater, with a removal rate reaching up to 76.3% [145]. Moreover, modified biochar prepared from B. pilosa has a high fluoride adsorption capacity of 192.79 mg/g and performs well in removing Cd2+, Cu2+, and ciprofloxacin. It can also be used as a component to strengthen the remediation of cadmium-contaminated soil [146,147,148,149]. Nevertheless, long phytoremediation cycles and low single-harvest removal rates remain key limiting factors. Optimizing combined remediation strategies and biochar synergistic systems is expected to further elevate its practical application value.

3.3.4. Industrial and Material Applications

B. pilosa is rich in natural pigments and bioactive compounds and also provides abundant structural biomass, showing high potential as multifunctional natural industrial raw materials. Application studies indicate that these extracts can dye textiles with natural colors and improve their antibacterial activity, satisfying the demand for green functional textiles [150,151]. Its abundant cellulose and hemicellulose can be converted into nanocellulose for wide applications in composites, flexible electronics, drug delivery, and water treatment membranes [52,152]. Polyacetylenes in the essential oil of B. alba exert obvious fumigant and contact toxicity against red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta). The median lethal dose (LD50) was as low as 0.024 μL per individual after 12 h of essential oil treatment and 0.022 μL per individual after 24 h of treatment [153]. In field trials carried out in African nations, the regular application of 10% (w/v) aqueous extracts of B. pilosa effectively alleviated cowpea damage caused by pests including aphids and beetles. Such an eco-friendly intervention markedly increased crop yields by 227.5% in Tanzania and 94.4% in Malawi, respectively [154]. Therefore, B. pilosa shows strong potential for development as a natural green insecticide, pending the optimization of extraction and functional modification for practical translation.

3.4. Integration of Invasion Control and Resource Utilization

Substantial progress has been made in the resource utilization of B. pilosa across diverse fields, including its traditional medicinal and edible applications, remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils, development of biomass materials, and production of antimicrobial daily chemical products (hand sanitizers [120] and mouthwashes [155]). This plant has been applied in both traditional ethnic medicine and modern industries. On this basis, B. pilosa exhibits broad industrialization prospects in numerous emerging sectors such as skincare products, health supplements, and veterinary medicines. Specifically, its supercritical CO2 extracts possess anti-aging activity; preclinical evidence supports the hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and myocardial fibrosis-improving effects of its total flavonoids. Polyacetylenes in the essential oil of B. alba display significant contact and fumigant toxicity against Solenopsis invicta. Furthermore, its extracts can serve as natural textile dyes with inherent antimicrobial properties, while its biomass can be converted into nanocellulose for application in flexible electronics and drug delivery systems (Figure 5).
However, large-scale utilization of B. pilosa carries the risk of secondary seed dispersal. Unregulated harvesting after seed maturation or long-distance transportation without sealed containment may conversely create new pathways for its transregional spread. Similarly, randomly discarded processing residues without prior inactivation can also act as novel invasive sources. In addition, allelochemicals of B. pilosa can reshape the structure of soil microbial communities and suppress the growth of native plant species through aqueous leachates and decomposed residues. Large-scale artificial cultivation to secure raw material supply, even within restricted zones, may result in irreversible impairment to soil microecology. It is therefore essential to implement timely, targeted harvesting during the post-flowering, pre-seed-maturation window, when bioactive constituent accumulation peaks, to fundamentally interrupt the reproductive pathway. Processing should preferably be conducted on-site within high-invasion zones, enabling closed-loop management that severs the spatial dispersal of propagules.
A further risk associated with resource utilization is the heavy metal accumulation-related quality and safety concern. B. pilosa possesses a strong ability to accumulate heavy metals including Cd, Pb, and Cr. If raw materials are sourced from regions where soil heavy metal concentrations exceed regulatory limits, their processing and subsequent entry into food, feed, or daily chemical supply chains will allow toxic substances to propagate along the industrial chain and threaten human and livestock health. Therefore, background monitoring of heavy metal contents and pesticide residues in the soil of production areas is required. Only material meeting established safety thresholds may enter food, pharmaceutical, or personal care utilization channels, while non-compliant biomass should be redirected toward high-value material applications such as the preparation of modified biochar or the extraction of nanocellulose.

4. Discussion

In this review, we synthesized the diversity of the utilization of B. pilosa from two perspectives, traditional ethnobotanical use and modern pharmacological evidence, and found that these two lines of utilization are not fully concordant. While traditional applications span a wide range of conditions, only a subset is currently supported by experimental validation. For respiratory disorders, and diabetes in particular, traditional use is both geographically widespread and corroborated by modern mechanistic evidence, whereas applications confined to single regions largely lack such support. Beyond its medicinal uses, we also compiled evidence for the non-medicinal utilization of B. pilosa, including dietary use, animal feed, heavy metal phytoremediation, and bioactivity-based products. Taken together, B. pilosa shows considerable development potential in pharmaceuticals, skincare, feed, and environmental remediation, with preliminary technical accumulation already achieved in several of these areas. Notably, this utilization potential has been recognized and developed in both its native and introduced ranges.
In recent years, researchers have begun to explore the integration of invasive plant utilization into invasion management on the premise that the abundant secondary metabolites, allelopathic compounds, and strong adaptability of invasive species may offer new opportunities for industries such as bioenergy, natural dyes, pharmaceuticals, engineered wood products, and soil remediation [156,157]. For example, a recent bioeconomic review assessed five major invasive alien plants—Lantana camara, Prosopis juliflora, Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia mearnsii, and Senna spectabilis—for their suitability in bioenergy, pulp and paper, natural dye production, pharmaceuticals, composting, and engineered timber [156].
Spartina alterniflora Loisel. (Poaceae) and Solidago canadensis L. (Asteraceae) are two well-investigated representative cases globally, yet both have inherent limitations. The resource exploitation of S. alterniflora is the most systematic, with straw-to-energy conversion accounting for approximately 43% of its applications [158,159]. Its total flavonoids also exhibit anti-inflammatory and hypoglycemic medicinal properties [158]. However, constrained by the unique habitat of coastal salt marshes, its large-scale utilization is hindered by high collection costs, poor palatability, and high salt content. In addition, pharmaceutical research on this species has gradually faded since the 2000s, and a complete industrial chain has never been formed [158]. S. canadensis is rich in bioactive compounds such as volatile oils, flavonoids, and diterpenes. Researchers have proposed diversified utilization pathways, including medicinal and healthcare products, biopesticides, feed additives and material-oriented applications. Nevertheless, most studies are still confined to the laboratory scale at present, with an obvious disconnection between academia and industrial application, and no mature products available for market popularization [160]. In contrast, B. pilosa possesses remarkable advantages in resource utilization. This genus has wide-ranging traditional applications and modern pharmacological validation, and preliminary technical accumulations have been achieved in daily chemical products, feed production, heavy metal remediation, and other fields. More importantly, these utilization strategies can be implemented in situ within invaded regions. Integrating medicinal extraction, feed processing, and heavy metal remediation into an integrated system can potentially establish a long-term prevention and control mechanism driven by economic benefits.
Several limitations warrant attention. First, the persistent taxonomic conflation of B. pilosa and B. alba in the literature undermines the reliability of bioactivity datasets and hampers species-specific product development. Second, the predominance of in vitro and rodent model studies leaves the clinical translational evidence base incomplete. Third, research efforts remain fragmented across disciplines, with insufficient integration between invasion ecology, phytochemistry, and pharmacology. Future studies should prioritize the precise taxonomic identification and standardized verification of the bioactive components of these two Bidens species and accelerate clinical translation research to underpin industrial applications. Meanwhile, greater emphasis should be placed on interdisciplinary collaboration. Combined with whole-process risk prevention and control technologies, a more sound system covering harvesting specifications, quality criteria, and ecological risk assessment for the “control-through-utilization” strategy can be constructed.
Overall, combining invasion ecology, ethnobotany, and modern pharmacology, this study uncovers the correspondence between traditional medicinal knowledge and modern scientific evidence, providing a scientific basis for the standardized implementation of the “control-through-utilization” strategy. From an ecological security perspective, this study explicitly identifies risks associated with secondary seed dispersal and heavy metal accumulation and puts forward a hierarchical utilization strategy. Raw materials derived from safe regions are used for medicinal, edible, and daily chemical products, while those from areas with excessive heavy metal concentrations are redirected toward high-value material-based applications, including biochar production, which helps develop a differentiated regulatory framework. In terms of regional economy, the resource utilization of B. pilosa can directly benefit rural communities in heavily invaded areas, with prominent social benefits and replicability. Collectively, this study establishes a systematic knowledge framework for the sustainable management of invasive Bidens species and provides methodological references for the integrated management of other terrestrial invasive alien plants.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.-F.L., S.S., and L.-L.Z.; literature collection and organization, L.-L.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, L.-L.Z.; visualization, X.-S.Z. and L.-L.Z.; writing—review and editing, all authors; funding acquisition, F.-F.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Science and Technology Project of Beijing Municipal Administration Center of Parks (ZX2026015).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used Gemini 3.1 Pro for the purposes of generating the inset images in Figure 5. The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. The part of stem of Bidens pilosa (a) and Bidens alba (b) with inflorescences.
Figure 1. The part of stem of Bidens pilosa (a) and Bidens alba (b) with inflorescences.
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Figure 2. Global distribution of traditional medicinal uses of B. pilosa. Each circle represents one country (the country name abbreviations are set according to International Naming Convention ISO 3166 Alpha-3 country code [52]); the outer ring shows disease categories; and the inner ring shows specific ailments, with distinguishable colors used to separate categories within each circle. AB: animal bites; CSD: circulatory system diseases; DID: dermatological infections; ENT: ear, nose, and eye problems; ESD: endocrine system disorders; ERSD: excretory and reproductive systems disorders; FVR: fever; GIA: gastrointestinal ailments; HC: hair care; HSD: hepatobiliary system diseases; NSC: neurological system disorders; RSD: respiratory system diseases; SMSD: skeleto-muscular system disorders; and TC: tumors and cancer.
Figure 2. Global distribution of traditional medicinal uses of B. pilosa. Each circle represents one country (the country name abbreviations are set according to International Naming Convention ISO 3166 Alpha-3 country code [52]); the outer ring shows disease categories; and the inner ring shows specific ailments, with distinguishable colors used to separate categories within each circle. AB: animal bites; CSD: circulatory system diseases; DID: dermatological infections; ENT: ear, nose, and eye problems; ESD: endocrine system disorders; ERSD: excretory and reproductive systems disorders; FVR: fever; GIA: gastrointestinal ailments; HC: hair care; HSD: hepatobiliary system diseases; NSC: neurological system disorders; RSD: respiratory system diseases; SMSD: skeleto-muscular system disorders; and TC: tumors and cancer.
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Figure 3. Geographic distribution of traditional medicinal use records of B. pilosa by disease category. Numbers beside disease categories: total global occurrence frequency of each disease category; numbers beside continents: total occurrence frequency of all disease categories in the corresponding continent. AB: animal bites; CSD: circulatory system diseases; DID: dermatological infections; ENT: ear, nose, and eye problems; ESD: endocrine system disorders; ERSD: excretory and reproductive systems disorders; FVR: fever; GIA: gastrointestinal ailments; HC: hair care; HSD: hepatobiliary system diseases; NSC: neurological system disorders; RSD: respiratory system diseases; SMSD: skeleto-muscular system disorders; and TC: tumors and cancer.
Figure 3. Geographic distribution of traditional medicinal use records of B. pilosa by disease category. Numbers beside disease categories: total global occurrence frequency of each disease category; numbers beside continents: total occurrence frequency of all disease categories in the corresponding continent. AB: animal bites; CSD: circulatory system diseases; DID: dermatological infections; ENT: ear, nose, and eye problems; ESD: endocrine system disorders; ERSD: excretory and reproductive systems disorders; FVR: fever; GIA: gastrointestinal ailments; HC: hair care; HSD: hepatobiliary system diseases; NSC: neurological system disorders; RSD: respiratory system diseases; SMSD: skeleto-muscular system disorders; and TC: tumors and cancer.
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the relationship between traditional medicinal uses and modern research of Bidens pilosa.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the relationship between traditional medicinal uses and modern research of Bidens pilosa.
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Figure 5. Schematic diagram of current and future resource utilization and invasion control strategies for Bidens pilosa.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of current and future resource utilization and invasion control strategies for Bidens pilosa.
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Table 1. Global traditional uses of B. pilosa.
Table 1. Global traditional uses of B. pilosa.
CategoriesAilmentsCountry
Animal bites (ABs)venomous snakebiteKenya [53], China [44,54,55,56]
insect bitesCameroon [57], China [58], Côte d’Ivoire [59]
Circulatory system diseases (CSDs)hypertensionChina [44,60,61], Trinidad and Tobago [62], Brazil [63,64], Zimbabwe [65], Côte d’Ivoire [59]
coronary heart diseaseChina [44]
Dermatological infections (DIDs)fade scarsPeru [66]
vitiligoIndia [67]
woundCôte d’Ivoire [12], China [54], Ethiopia [68], Kenya [53,69], Cameroon [70], Nigeria [71], India [72]
dermatosisChina [61]
skin infectionsKenya [12], Cameroon [70]
Ear, nose and eye problems (ENTs)xerophthalmiaChina [44]
Endocrine system disorders (ESDs)hyperglycemiaChina [44,60]
hyperlipidemiaChina [44]
diabetesChina [56,73], Trinidad and Tobago [74], Colombia [75], Fiji [76], Kenya [77], Nigeria [78], Brazil [79]
Excretory and reproductive systems disorders (ERSDs)acute nephritisChina [44,54]
diuresisTrinidad and Tobago [62], Colombia [71], Nigeria [80], Cuba [81]
promote laborPeru [66], Colombia [75]
contraceptionPeru [66], Colombia [75]
urinary tract infectionKenya [12], Peru [66], India [72], Colombia [75], Brazil [82]
intrauterine infectionPeru [66]
mastodyniaChina [54]
irregular menstruationChina [61]
constipationEthiopia [83]
glandular sclerosisIndia [72]
Fever (FVR)malariaChina [44,61], Peru [66], Kenya [77], Cameroon [84],
Ethiopia [83]
feverPeru [66], China [85], Cuba [86], Cameroon [87]
typhoidCameroon [87]
Gastrointestinal ailments (GIAs)diarrheaColombia [75], China [44,88], Philippines [89]
dysenteryChina [44,54,90]
gastralgiaChina [44], Zimbabwe [65]
dysphagiaChina [44]
intestinal abscessChina [44]
dyspepsiaChina [61], Colombia [75], Philippines [89]
gastroenteritisChina [44,91,92]
acute appendicitisChina [54,61]
Hair care (HC)alopeciaPeru [66]
dandruffPeru [66]
Hepatobiliary system diseases (HSDs)liver protectionChina [44,59], Peru [66], Colombia [75], Nigeria [93]
hepatitisChina [44], India [72]
gallstonesColombia [75]
jaundiceChina [61,88]
Neurological system disorders (NSCs)neurastheniaChina [44]
migraineChina [54]
Respiratory system diseases (RSDs)coldChina [60,85,91], Trinidad and Tobago [62], Peru [66], India [72], Philippines [89], Cuba [86]
sore and swollen throatChina [44,60,88,90,91]
tracheal cystChina [44]
chronic bronchitisChina [44], India [67]
emphysemaChina [44]
coughTrinidad and Tobago [62], India [67], Fiji [76], Cuba [86]
pneumoniaKenya [77]
respiratory tract infectionKenya [12]
wheezingFiji [76]
fluIndia [72], Cuba [86]
Skeleto-muscular system disorders (SMSDs)traumatic injuriesChina [44,56]
muscle sorenessPeru [66], Philippines [85]
rheumatic bone painChina [61,88], Zimbabwe [65]
kidney-deficiency lumbagoChina [88], Philippines [89]
cramp and convulsionPhilippines [89]
arthritisCameroon [70]
Tumors and Cancer (TC)tumorBrazil [79], China [44,61], Cuba [81]
cancerBrazil [64], Ethiopia [83], China [94]
Table 2. Correspondence table between traditional medicinal uses and modern research of Bidens pilosa.
Table 2. Correspondence table between traditional medicinal uses and modern research of Bidens pilosa.
Disease CategoriesTraditional Disease TreatmentModern Mechanism VerificationActive Substance
Animal bites (ABs)venomous snakebiteanti-inflammatory; immunomodulatoryextract; total flavonoids
insect bitesanti-inflammatory; anti-allergicsuspension
Circulatory system diseases (CSDs)hypertensionhypotensivetotal flavonoids
Dermatological infections (DIDs)woundwound healing; immunomodulatorypolyphenols, saponins, flavonoids, and tannins
dermatosisanti-inflammatory; antibacterial; wound healingpolyphenols, saponins, flavonoids, and tannins
Endocrine system disorders (ESDs)hyperglycemiaantidiabeticextract and n-butanol fraction
hyperlipidemiahypolipidemicethyl acetate extract; n-butanol extract
diabetesantidiabeticextract and n-butanol fraction
Excretory and reproductive systems disorders (ERSDs)acute nephritisanti-inflammatory; immunomodulatoryextract; total flavonoids
urinary tract infectionanti-inflammatory; antibacterialethanol extract, acetone extract, and petroleum ether extract
intrauterine infectionanti-inflammatory; antibacterialethanol extract
Fever (FVR)malariaantiviral; anti-inflammatorytotal flavonoids
feverantiviral; anti-inflammatorytotal flavonoids
Gastrointestinal ailments (GIAs)dysenteryanti-inflammatory; antibacterialethanol extract, acetone extract; petroleum ether extract
gastroenteritiscolitis; anti-inflammatory; antibacterialluteolin and quercetin
Hepatobiliary system diseases (HSDs)liver protectionhepatoprotectiveaurone glycosides, ethyl acetate extract
hepatitishepatoprotective; anti-inflammatoryextract
jaundicehepatoprotectiveaurone glycosides
Respiratory system diseases (RSDs)coldantiviral; anti-inflammatoryextract; total flavonoids
sore and swollen throatanti-inflammatory; analgesictotal flavonoids; dichloromethane extract
chronic bronchitisanti-inflammatory; antibacterialextract; total flavonoids
Tumors and cancer (TC)tumorantitumor (via multiple mechanisms)chloroform fraction, polyacetylene compounds
gastric cancerinhibition of gastric cancer cellspetroleum ether fraction, polyacetylene isomers
hepatic cancerinhibition of hepatic cancer cellspolyacetylene compounds from roots
breast cancerinhibition of breast cancer cellspolyacetylene compounds from roots
esophageal cancerinhibition of esophageal cancer cellsextract
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Zhong, L.-L.; Zhou, X.-S.; Luo, B.-S.; Lin, R.-Z.; Shi, S.; Li, F.-F. Diverse Utilization of Bidens pilosa and Prospects for Sustainable Management. Diversity 2026, 18, 349. https://doi.org/10.3390/d18060349

AMA Style

Zhong L-L, Zhou X-S, Luo B-S, Lin R-Z, Shi S, Li F-F. Diverse Utilization of Bidens pilosa and Prospects for Sustainable Management. Diversity. 2026; 18(6):349. https://doi.org/10.3390/d18060349

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhong, Li-Li, Xing-Song Zhou, Bin-Sheng Luo, Ruo-Zhu Lin, Shi Shi, and Fei-Fei Li. 2026. "Diverse Utilization of Bidens pilosa and Prospects for Sustainable Management" Diversity 18, no. 6: 349. https://doi.org/10.3390/d18060349

APA Style

Zhong, L.-L., Zhou, X.-S., Luo, B.-S., Lin, R.-Z., Shi, S., & Li, F.-F. (2026). Diverse Utilization of Bidens pilosa and Prospects for Sustainable Management. Diversity, 18(6), 349. https://doi.org/10.3390/d18060349

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