Abiotic Stress in Crop Production
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Abiotic Stresses and Crops
2.1. Heat Stress
2.1.1. Europe Is Experiencing the Hottest Summers in Recorded History
2.1.2. The Temperature Optimum for Most Crops Grown in Europe Is Exceeded for Weeks during the Season
2.1.3. Role of High Temperatures in Crop Production
2.1.4. High-Temperature Signaling in Model Plant and Crops
2.2. Drought Stress
2.2.1. High Temperatures without Precipitation Are Causing Drought across Europe
2.2.2. Impact of Drought on Different Crops at Different Developmental Stages
2.2.3. Drought in Plant Physiology
2.2.4. The Role of Root Growth in Drought Resistance
2.2.5. Roots and Hydrotropism
2.2.6. Long-Distance Signaling of Water Deficit
2.2.7. Other Mechanisms of Drought Resistance
2.3. Salt Stress
2.3.1. Plants Are Variable in Their Resistance to Salt
2.3.2. Key Mechanism for Salt-Stress Resistance
2.3.3. Salt-Stress Signaling and Role of ROS
2.4. Cold Stress
2.4.1. Crop Sensitivity to Low Temperatures
2.4.2. Low-Temperature Signaling
2.4.3. Role of Redox Changes in Cold Signaling
3. Similarities among Abiotic Stresses and Their Potential Crosstalk
3.1. Meta-Analysis of Stress-Responsive Genes
3.2. Subcellular Localization of Products of Genes Involved in Abiotic Stress Response
3.3. Functions of Common Genes Responding Identically to at Least Three Different Abiotic Stresses
3.4. Specific Universal Stress Responsive Genes Affected by Heat, Cold, Drought, and Salinity
4. Stress and Metabolites
4.1. Primary Metabolites
4.1.1. Amino Acids and Analogues
4.1.2. Organic Acids
4.1.3. Carbohydrates
4.1.4. Sugar Alcohols
4.2. Secondary Metabolites
4.2.1. Phenolics
4.2.2. Terpenes
4.2.3. Nitrogen/Sulfur-Containing Compounds
4.3. Phytohormones
Hormone | Stress | Effect | Organism | Publication |
---|---|---|---|---|
ABA | heat | improved antioxidant system, lower MDA | wheat | [387] |
heat | higher yield | rice | [388] | |
water stress | stomata closure, microtubules | thale cress | [120] | |
osmotic stress | stomata closure | barley | [122] | |
salinity | higher yield and water-use efficiency (WUE) | tomato | [389] | |
cold | activation of CBF regulon | grapevine | [390] | |
cold | improved antioxidant system | tomato | [391] | |
AUX | heat | increased yield | wheat | [392] |
heat | improved embryo development | rapeseed | [393] | |
drought | decreased ROS, lower electrolyte leakage (EL) | soya | [394] | |
osmotic stress | lower EL and MDA, increased chlorophyll | tobacco | [395] | |
salinity | root growth | thale cress | [396] | |
salinity | root growth | maize | [397] | |
cold | increased proline, saccharides | rapeseed | [398] | |
BR | heat | improved growth, increased proline | wheat | [399] |
heat | improved antioxidant system | tomato | [400] | |
drought | improved antioxidant system, ABA content | tomato | [373] | |
osmotic stress | improved antioxidant system, ABA content | grapevine | [401] | |
osmotic stress | higher survival, improved root growth | cotton | [402] | |
salinity | higher WUE, increased proline | bean | [403] | |
cold stress | photoprotection | tomato | [404] | |
cold stress | improved antioxidant system, lower EL and MDA | tomato | [405] | |
CK | heat | higher yield | wheat | [406] |
heat | higher survival | thale cress | [407] | |
heat | improved photosynthesis, higher proline | rice | [408] | |
heat/drought | impaired photosynthesis, lower relative water content (RWC) | tomato | [409] | |
drought | decreased survival, lower RWC | thale cress | [381] | |
drought | higher yield | rice | [383] | |
drought | improved antioxidant system | tobacco | [382] | |
salinity/drought | decreased survival | thale cress | [410] | |
salinity | improved photosynthesis, lower MDA | tomato | [411] | |
salinity | improved photosynthesis and growth, lower EL | rice | [412] | |
cold stress | induction of cold-responsive genes | maize | [413] | |
cold stress | increased and also decreased survival | thale cress | [414] | |
ET | heat | lower membrane oxidation and EL, higher biomass | rice | [415] |
heat | higher pollen quality | tomato | [416] | |
salinity | increased ROS, inhibited root growth | rice | [417] | |
salinity | increased ROS | tobacco | [418] | |
salinity | increased sensitivity to stress | cucurbits | [419] | |
salinity | improved Na/K homeostasis | thale cress | [420] | |
drought | drought-induced senescence | maize | [421] | |
drought | increased survival | rice | [422] | |
drought | lower yield | barley | [423] | |
drought | lower yield | maize | [424] | |
cold stress | increased survival | grapevine | [378] | |
cold stress | repressed CBF | thale cress | [377] | |
GA | heat | positive role in thermomorphogenesis | thale cress | [376] |
heat | higher EL, impaired photosynthesis | barley | [425] | |
drought | decreased RWC | tomato | [426] | |
drought | lower yield and pigments | cereals | [427] | |
salinity | root differentiation/decreased tolerance | thale cress | [428] | |
cold | increased EL, impaired antioxidant system | maize | [429] | |
cold | decreased CBF expression | thale cress | [430] | |
cold | decreased EL and MDA, mitigated stress | tomato | [431] | |
JA | heat | improved photosynthesis | wheat | [432] |
heat | increased survival, improved photosynthesis | thale cress | [433] | |
drought | increased biomass, higher water content | tomato | [434] | |
drought | higher antioxidant system, increased proline | sweet potato | [435] | |
salinity | decreased Na+ concentration | barley | [436] | |
salinity | increased proline, higher tolerance | sorghum | [437] | |
cold | increased ABA, lower EL, improved photosynthesis | tomato | [371] | |
cold | increased sugars, decreased browning index | peach fruit | [438] | |
SA | heat | improved antioxidant system, lower MDA | wheat | [387] |
heat | protected from pollen abortion, decreased ROS | rice | [439] | |
drought | lower EL and MDA, higher RWC | barley | [440] | |
drought | increased yield | tomato | [441] | |
salinity | improved antioxidant system, lower Na+ level | potato | [442] | |
salinity | increased yield | tomato | [443] | |
cold | improved photosynthesis, lower EL and ROS | wheat | [444] | |
cold | lower EL, improved antioxidant system | grapevine | [445] | |
SL | heat/cold | higher ABA content, increased resistance | tomato | [372] |
heat | higher germination, higher proline level, lower MDA | lupine | [446] | |
drought | improved growth, higher chlorophyll, higher RWC | barley | [447] | |
drought | improved photosynthesis, lower ROS | wheat | [448] | |
salinity | improved antioxidant system and growth | tomato | [449] | |
salinity | improved antioxidant system and photosynthesis | cucumber | [450] | |
cold | lower ROS and MDA, increased proline | mung bean | [451] | |
cold | improved antioxidant system and photosynthesis | rapeseed | [452] |
4.4. Other Growth Regulators
5. Conclusions and Future Prospects
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Crop | Optimal Temperature | Developmental Stage | Publication |
---|---|---|---|
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) | 12–22 °C | flowering and grain filling | [37] |
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) | 25 °C | grain filling | [38] |
Maize (Zea mays) | 28–32 °C | general | [39] |
Rapeseed (Brassica napus) | 21–25 °C | general | [40] |
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) | 22–26 °C | growth of the taproot | [41] |
Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) | 15–19 °C | tuber growth | [42] |
Grapes (Vitis vinifera) | 20–40 °C | berry development | [43] |
Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) | 22–26 °C | fruit set and satisfactory fruit yield | [44] |
Sunflowers (Helianthus annuum) | 12–20 °C | general | [45] |
Apples (Malus domestica) | 18–21 °C | shoot growth and floral initiation | [46] |
Crop | Description of the Experiment | Metabolites Involved in the Response to Stress Conditions |
---|---|---|
heat | ||
potato (Solanum tuberosum) | Metabolome changes after 3 days of heat stress (35 °C) in potato leaves [273]. | ↑ tyrosine, arachidonic acid metabolism, flavone, and flavonol biosynthesis |
↓ glutathione, linoleic acid, steroid, fatty acid, phosphonate, and phosphinate metabolism | ||
maize (Zea mays) | Metabolome change after long-term heat stress in maize leaves. Heat stress started at 30/24 °C, which was increased 2 °C per day for 5 days, then maintained at 37 °C for 12 days [274]. | ↑ tryptophan, threonine, histidine, raffinose, galactinol, lactitol |
↓ citrate and trans-3-caffeoyl quinic acid | ||
wheat (Triticum aestivum) | Two contrasting spring wheat genotypes were exposed to heat stress (34/16 °C, 10 days) during heading. Anthers were collected for metabolic profiling [275]. | ↑ N-based amino acids, ABA, IAA-conjugate |
↓ dehydroascorbic acid, quinic acid, 5-Hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid, putrescine, and shikimic acid | ||
grape (Vitis vinifera) | Metabolomic analysis of high-temperature effect (34/26 °C, 14 days) on grapevine berries [276]. | ↑ lipid metabolism metabolites, lignin, cuticle, vax, GABA, galactinol, vitamins |
↓ malic acid, shikimate, sugar phosphate, secondary metabolites, sugars | ||
maize (Zea mays) | Recovery profiling following sudden heat shock (46 °C, 2 h) regarding metabolites in two maize genotypes grown under ambient or elevated CO2 [277]. | ↑ ribose, valine, asparagine, isoleucine, adipic, 2-oxoglutarate, pyruvate, maltose, malate, trehalose, myo-inositol, starch, citric, fumarate |
↓ glycerate, serine, glycine, shikimate, leucine, proline, and sucrose | ||
tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) | Untargeted metabolomic analyses of tomato pollen after short heat exposure (38 °C, 2 h) [278]. | ↑ flavonoids |
drought | ||
sunflower (Helianthus annuus) | Comparison of metabolic profiles of sensitive/tolerant sunflower seedlings subjected to water-deficit stress [279]. | Water-deficit stress-tolerant line accumulated: |
↑ anthranilic acid, maleic acid, malonic acid, putative-rhamnose, fructose | ||
wheat (Triticum aestivum) | Drought effect (up to 10 days after withholding water) on bread wheat metabolism during the flowering stage [280]. | ↑ 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, Asn, serotonin, GABA, cystine, deoxyuridine, tryptamine, putrescine |
↓ glyceric, shikimic, ferulic and succinic acid | ||
barley (Hordeum vulgare) | Transcriptome and metabolome analysis on the developing grains of two barley genotypes differing in the responses to drought stress [281]. | ↑ amino acids, sugars, abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, ferulate |
↓ citrate | ||
wheat (Triticum aestivum) | Metabolic adjustment of six winter wheat cultivars to drought (induced by withholding watering for 6 days) [282]. | ↑ sugars, malic acid, oxalic acids, proline, threonine, GABA, glutamine, myo-inositol |
↓ propanoic acid | ||
wheat (Triticum aestivum) | Changes in protein and metabolite abundance of two wheat cultivars after 7 days of water deficit [230]. | ↑ purine bases, organic acids, sugars, amino acids |
↓ aspartate, glutamate | ||
barley (Hordeum vulgare) | Metabolic changes in four wild and cultivated barley genotypes contrasting in drought tolerance during grain-filling stage in response to water stress [283]. | ↑ mannitol, L-proline, sucrose, TCA cycle components, quinic acid |
↓ 2-ketoglutaric acid | ||
potato (Solanum tuberosum) | Set of predictive markers for drought tolerance by transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling of 31 potato cultivars [284]. | markers for drought tolerance: |
↑ galactaric, galactonic, glyceric, saccharic acid, dopamine, tyramine | ||
sunflower (Helianthus annuus) | Metabolic pathways related to drought conditions in sunflowers. The response of plants was studied in the early stage of water deficit [285]. | ↑ TCA cycle components, carbohydrates, amino acids, and derivatives proline, tyramine, glycine, malonate, γ-aminobutyrate |
↓ amino acid metabolites | ||
salinity | ||
barley (Hordeum vulgare) | Metabolic analyses of barley seeds in response to salt stress (24 h, 200 mM NaCl), during the germination process. Two differentially salt-tolerant barley varieties were compared [286]. | ↑ aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism, and porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism (tolerant) |
↑ valine, leucine and isoleucine biosynthesis, biosynthesis of amino acids, alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism, glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, and cyanoamino acid metabolism (sensitive) | ||
rapeseed (Brassica napus) | Molecular mechanism of salt tolerance in rapeseed. Two rapeseed varieties were compared, showing the metabolites common to both [287]. | ↑ glutathione amid, aconitase, glucose, mannose, inositol, epigallocatechin 3-gallate |
↓ arginine, citrulline, trimethyl-lysine, acetylaspartate, inositol-triphosphate | ||
rapeseed (Brassica napus) | Key salt-related metabolites in five different rapeseed cultivars. Salt stress (up to 200 mM NaCl) was applied during the early seedling stage [288]. | ↑ linolenic acid, xanthosine, inosine 5′-monophosphate, adenosine 3′-monophosphate, niacinamide, oleamide, phosphoric acid, etamiphylline (in tolerant cultivars) |
↓ 5-hydroxytryptophan, cholesterol, L-aspartic acid, beta-homotreonine, N-p-coumaroyl serotonin, ornithine (in tolerant cultivars) | ||
sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) | Metabolites involved in the short-term (1 day) and long-term (7 days) salt-stress response (300 mM Na+ treatment) in sugar beet [289]. | ↑ L-malic acid and 2-oxoglutaric acid, amino acids, betaine, melatonin, (S)-2-aminobutyric acid, cis-aconitate, benzoic acid L-malic acid, alpha-ketoglutarate, 2-isopropylmalic acid |
↓ sucrose | ||
barley (Hordeum vulgare) | Ionomic, metabolomic, and proteomic responses in roots of salt-tolerant/sensitive barley accession exposed to salinity stress (200 and 400 mM) [290]. | ↑ fructose, trehalose, sorbitol (in both genotypes), glycine, alanine, valine, inositol, allothreonine, glutamic acid, glycine, cysteine (in tolerant genotypes) |
↓ glucose-6-P, fructose-6-P | ||
durum wheat (Triticum durum) | Metabolic changes in the shoots and roots of five durum-wheat genotypes exposed to the different salt levels [291]. | ↑ proline |
↓ organic acids involved in the Krebs cycle, gluconic, quinic, shikimic acid | ||
sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) | Metabolic adaptation of sugar beet to salt stress (up to 300 mM NaCl) at the cellular and subcellular levels. Metabolites were profiled at 3 h and 14 d after reaching the maximum salinity stress [292]. | ↑ arabinose, gluconolactone, inositol, mannitol, proline, serine, and thymine |
↓ lactate, homoserine, adenosine, guanine (early response), fumarate, L-aspartate, gluconate (late response) | ||
barley (Hordeum vulgare) | The effects of salinity stress (up to 150 mM NaCl) on barley roots through quantitation of polar metabolites [293]. | ↑ 4-hydroxy-proline, alanine, arginine, asparagine, citrulline, glutamine, phenylalanine, proline |
↓ putrescine, succinate | ||
cold | ||
maize (Zea mays) | Metabolic responses under cold stress (5 °C, 24 h) in the early growth stages of maize. Responses of tolerant and susceptible lines were compared [294]. | Cold-tolerant line accumulated: |
↑ guanosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate, quercetin-3-O-(2″′-p-coumaroyl)sophoroside-7-O-glucoside, phloretin, phloretin-2′-O-glucoside, naringenin-7-O-Rutinoside, L-lysine, L-phenylalanine, L-glutamine, sinapyl alcohol, feruloyl tartaric | ||
apple (Malus domestica) | Molecular mechanism of apple trees in response to freezing injury during winter dormancy. Cold-resistant and cold-sensitive cultivars were compared [295]. | ↑ 4-aminobutyric acid, spermidine, and ascorbic acid (cold-resistant) |
↓ oxidized glutathione, vitamin C, glutathione, spermidine (cold-resistant) | ||
rapeseed (Brassica napus) | Metabolite profiling of cold-treated (−2 °C, 2 h) contrasting rapeseed genotypes focusing on siliques [296]. | ↑ 8-hydroxyguanosine, 9-(arabinosyl)hypoxanthine, inosine, uridine, guanosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate, β-pseudouridine, 4-acetamidobutyric acid, phenylpyruvic acid, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid, valeric acid, γ-aminobutyric acid, oxalic acid, jasmonic acid (both genotypes) |
↑ adenine, riboprine, cytidine, N6-isopentenyladenine (cold-tolerant only) | ||
maize (Zea mays) | Metabolic responses of maize hybrids could be extrapolated from growth-chamber (gradually decreasing temperature) conditions to early sowing in the field [297]. | ↑ trans-aconitate, coumaroyl hydroxycitrate, chrysoeriol glucosyl rhamnoside, caffeoylquinate, ferruloylquinate, (iso)vitexin, DIBOA-glucoside |
↓ malate, glutamine | ||
rapeseed (Brassica napus) | Cold-responsive metabolites in two contrasting varieties of rapeseed after 1 and 7 days of cold treatment [298]. | Response to cold in both varieties: |
↑ trehalose, L-Kynurenine, gamma-tocotrienol, phenyllactic acid, L-Gulonic gamma-lactone | ||
maize (Zea mays) | Two maize lines with contrasting chilling-tolerance capacities were used to identify the major factors of chilling tolerance. The plants were exposed to 14 °C day/10 °C night for 60 days [299]. | Chilling tolerance in tolerant plants correlated with: |
↑ chlorophyll content, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity, sucrose-to-starch ratio | ||
wheat (Triticum aestivum) | Metabolite activity in winter-hardy wheat subjected to cold stress (cold acclimation at 4 °C for 28 days, then freezing at −5 °C for 24 h) [300]. | ↑ aspartic acid O-rutinoside, proline, tyramine, raffinose, gluconic acid, melezitose, mannose, maltotetraose |
↓ aspartic acid, lysine, ornithine | ||
potato (Solanum tuberosum) | Metabolome of the freezing-tolerant Solanum acaule and freezing-sensitive S. tuberosum. The plants were exposed to 4 °C for 14 days, then to gradient freezing at 1 °C/h up to −12 °C [301]. | Chilling tolerance in tolerant plants correlated with: |
↑ putrescine, 1-kestose, raffinose, xylose, fucose, isoleucine, tyrosine, valine, benzoic acid, trans-caffeic acid, dehydroascorbic acid, uracil |
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Kopecká, R.; Kameniarová, M.; Černý, M.; Brzobohatý, B.; Novák, J. Abiotic Stress in Crop Production. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 6603. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076603
Kopecká R, Kameniarová M, Černý M, Brzobohatý B, Novák J. Abiotic Stress in Crop Production. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(7):6603. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076603
Chicago/Turabian StyleKopecká, Romana, Michaela Kameniarová, Martin Černý, Břetislav Brzobohatý, and Jan Novák. 2023. "Abiotic Stress in Crop Production" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 7: 6603. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076603