Alcohol Withdrawal and the Associated Mood Disorders—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Pharmacodynamics—The Target of Ethanol
2.1. Ethanol and GABAA Receptors
2.2. Ethanol and NMDA Receptors
2.3. Ethanol and Glycine Receptors
3. Structural Brain Alterations Associated with Ethanol Use
3.1. Effects on Frontal Lobe
3.2. Effects on The Temporal Lobe
3.3. Effects on Limbic System
3.4. Effects on Cerebellum
4. Structural Brain Alterations Associated with Ethanol Use in Animals
5. Oxidative Stress and Anxiety
6. Oxidative Stress and Depression
7. Alcohol Use Disorder, Oxidative Stress and Psychological Disorders
8. Ethanol Withdrawal
8.1. Neurobiology of Ethanol Withdrawal
8.2. Kindling Hypothesis: Role of Anticonvulsants
9. Ethanol Withdrawal, Corticotropin-Releasing Factor, and Neurological Disorders
10. Brain-Derived Neurotropic Factor, Alcohol Disorders and Depression
11. Ethanol Withdrawal, Oxidative Stress, and Psychological Disorders
12. Pharmacotherapy for Ethanol Use Disorders-Associated Psychological Disorders
13. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Alcohol. Definition, Formula, & Facts. Britannica. Available online: https://www.britannica.com/science/alcohol (accessed on 30 September 2021).
- Harmful Use of Alcohol. Available online: https://www.who.int/health-topics/alcohol#tab=tab_1 (accessed on 7 May 2021).
- Sudan Scraps Apostasy Law and Alcohol Ban for Non-Muslims. BBC News. Available online: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53379733 (accessed on 7 May 2021).
- Witkiewitz, K.; Litten, R.Z.; Leggio, L. Advances in the science and treatment of alcohol use disorder. Sci. Adv. 2019, 5, eaax4043. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Drinking Too Much Alcohol Can Harm Your Health. Learn the Facts. CDC. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/alcohol-use.htm (accessed on 7 May 2021).
- Zipursky, J.S.; Stall, N.M.; Silverstein, W.K.; Huang, Q.; Chau, J.; Hillmer, M.P.; Redelmeier, D.A. Alcohol Sales and Alcohol-Related Emergencies during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Ann. Intern. Med. 2021, 174, 1029–1032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics. WHO. Available online: https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en (accessed on 15 October 2022).
- Murthy, P.; Narasimha, V.L. Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown on alcohol use disorders and complications. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 2021, 34, 376–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mukamal, K.J.; Robbins, J.A.; Cauley, J.A.; Kern, L.M.; Siscovick, D.S. Alcohol consumption, bone density, and hip fracture among older adults: The cardiovascular health study. Osteoporos. Int. 2007, 18, 593–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brust, J.C. Ethanol and cognition: Indirect effects, neurotoxicity and neuroprotection: A review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7, 1540–1557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Osna, N.A.; Donohue, T.M., Jr.; Kharbanda, K.K. Alcoholic Liver Disease: Pathogenesis and Current Management. Alcohol Res. 2017, 38, 147–161. [Google Scholar]
- Pöschl, G.; Seitz, H.K. Alcohol and cancer. Alcohol Alcohol. 2004, 39, 155–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Allen, N.E.; Beral, V.; Casabonne, D.; Kan, S.W.; Reeves, G.K.; Brown, A.; Green, J. Moderate Alcohol Intake and Cancer Incidence in Women. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2009, 101, 296–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cao, Y.; Willett, W.; Rimm, E.B.; Stampfer, M.J.; Giovannucci, E.L. Light to moderate intake of alcohol, drinking patterns, and risk of cancer: Results from two prospective US cohort studies. BMJ 2015, 351, h4238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lundsberg, L.S.; Pensak, M.J.; Gariepy, A.M. Is Periconceptional Substance Use Associated with Unintended Pregnancy? Womens Health Rep. 2020, 1, 17–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mostofsky, E.; Mukamal, K.J.; Giovannucci, E.L.; Stampfer, M.J.; Rimm, E.B. Key Findings on Alcohol Consumption and a Variety of Health Outcomes from the Nurses’ Health Study. Am. J. Public Health 2016, 106, 1586–1591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mukherjee, R.A.; Hollins, S.; Turk, J. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: An overview. J. R. Soc. Med. 2006, 99, 298–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lobo, I.A.; Harris, R.A. GABA(A) receptors and alcohol. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2008, 90, 90–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Harris, R.A.; Trudell, J.R.; Mihic, S.J. Ethanol’s molecular targets. Sci. Signal. 2008, 1, re7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Davies, M. The role of GABAA receptors in mediating the effects of alcohol in the central nervous system. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 2003, 28, 263–274. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Edwards, Z.; Preuss, C.V. GABA Receptor Positive Allosteric Modulators; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2022.
- Goetz, T.; Arslan, A.; Wisden, W.; Wulff, P. GABAA receptors: Structure and function in the basal ganglia. In Gaba and the Basal Ganglia; Tepper, J.M., Abercrombie, E.D., Bolam, J.P., Eds.; Progress in Brain Research; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2007; Volume 160, pp. 21–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mukherjee, S. Alcoholism and its effects on the central nervous system. Curr. Neurovasc. Res. 2013, 10, 256–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, H.; Zhu, G. The dopamine system and alcohol dependence. Shanghai Arch. Psychiatry 2014, 26, 61–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hodge, C.W.; Mehmert, K.K.; Kelley, S.P.; McMahon, T.; Haywood, A.; Olive, M.F.; Wang, D.; Sanchez-Perez, A.M.; Messing, R.O. Supersensitivity to allosteric GABA(A) receptor modulators and alcohol in mice lacking PKCε. Nat. Neurosci. 1999, 2, 997–1002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harris, R.A.; McQuilkin, S.J.; Paylor, R.; Abeliovich, A.; Tonegawa, S.; Wehner, J.M. Mutant mice lacking the γ isoform of protein kinase C show decreased behavioral actions of ethanol and altered function of γ-aminobutyrate type A receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 3658–3662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hoffman, P.L.; Rabe, C.S.; Grant, K.A.; Valverius, P.; Hudspith, M.; Tabakoff, B. Ethanol and the NMDA receptor. Alcohol 1990, 7, 229–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chandrasekar, R. Alcohol and NMDA receptor: Current research and future direction. Front. Mol. Neurosci. 2013, 6, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bloodgood, B.L.; Sabatini, B.L. NMDA Receptor-Mediated Calcium Transients in Dendritic Spines. In Biology of the NMDA Receptor; van Dongen, A.M., Ed.; CRC Press/Taylor & Francis: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Lovinger, D.M.; White, G.; Weight, F.F. Ethanol inhibits NMDA-activated ion current in hippocampal neurons. Science 1989, 243, 1721–1724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Maldve, R.E.; Zhang, T.A.; Ferrani-Kile, K.; Schreiber, S.S.; Lippmann, M.J.; Snyder, G.L.; Fienberg, A.A.; Leslie, S.W.; Gonzales, R.A.; Morrisett, R.A. DARPP-32 and regulation of the ethanol sensitivity of NMDA receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Nat. Neurosci. 2002, 5, 641–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Burgos, C.F.; Muñoz, B.; Guzman, L.; Aguayo, L.G. Ethanol effects on glycinergic transmission: From molecular pharmacology to behavior responses. Pharmacol. Res. 2015, 101, 18–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Aguayo, L.G.; van Zundert, B.; Tapia, J.C.; Carrasco, M.A.; Alvarez, F.J. Changes on the properties of glycine receptors during neuronal development. Brain Res. Rev. 2004, 47, 33–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sebe, J.Y.; Eggers, E.D.; Berger, A.J. Differential effects of ethanol on GABA(A) and glycine receptor-mediated synaptic currents in brain stem motoneurons. J. Neurophysiol. 2003, 90, 870–875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Molander, A.; Löf, E.; Stomberg, R.; Ericson, M.; Söderpalm, B. Involvement of accumbal glycine receptors in the regulation of voluntary ethanol intake in the rat. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2005, 29, 38–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spanagel, R. Alcoholism: A Systems Approach From Molecular Physiology to Addictive Behavior. Physiol. Rev. 2009, 89, 649–705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Perkins, D.I.; Trudell, J.R.; Crawford, D.K.; Alkana, R.L.; Davies, D.L. Molecular targets and mechanisms for ethanol action in glycine receptors. Pharmacol. Ther. 2010, 127, 53–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Buckwalter, M.S.; Cook, S.A.; Davisson, M.T.; White, W.F.; Camper, S.A. A frameshift mutation in the mouse alpha 1 glycine receptor gene (Glra1) results in progressive neurological symptoms and juvenile death. Hum. Mol. Genet. 1994, 3, 2025–2030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koch, M.; Kling, C.; Becker, C.M. Increased startle responses in mice carrying mutations of glycine receptor subunit genes. Neuroreport 1996, 7, 806–808. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Molander, A.; Söderpalm, B. Accumbal strychnine-sensitive glycine receptors: An access point for ethanol to the brain reward system. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2005, 29, 27–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Molander, A.; Lidö, H.H.; Löf, E.; Ericson, M.; Söderpalm, B. The glycine reuptake inhibitor Org 25935 decreases ethanol intake and preference in male wistar rats. Alcohol Alcohol. 2007, 42, 11–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Li, J.; Nie, H.; Bian, W.; Dave, V.; Janak, P.H.; Ye, J.H. Microinjection of glycine into the ventral tegmental area selectively decreases ethanol consumption. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2012, 341, 196–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rosenbloom, M.J.; Pfefferbaum, A.; Sullivan, E.V. Structural Brain Alterations Associated with Alcoholism. Alcohol Health Res. World 1995, 19, 266–272. [Google Scholar]
- Oscar-Berman, M.; Marinković, K. Alcohol: Effects on neurobehavioral functions and the brain. Neuropsychol. Rev. 2007, 17, 239–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ditraglia, G.M.; Press, D.S.; Butters, N.; Jernigan, T.L.; Cermak, L.S.; Velin, R.A.; Shear, P.K.; Irwin, M.; Schuckit, M. Assessment of olfactory deficits in detoxified alcoholics. Alcohol 1991, 8, 109–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Harper, C.; Matsumoto, I. Ethanol and brain damage. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 2005, 5, 73–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gansler, D.A.; Harris, G.J.; Oscar-Berman, M.; Streeter, C.; Lewis, R.F.; Ahmed, I.; Achong, D. Hypoperfusion of inferior frontal brain regions in abstinent alcoholics: A pilot SPECT study. J. Stud. Alcohol 2000, 61, 32–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, G.J.; Volkow, N.D.; Roque, C.T.; Cestaro, V.L.; Hitzemann, R.J.; Cantos, E.L.; Levy, A.V.; Dhawan, A.P. Functional importance of ventricular enlargement and cortical atrophy in healthy subjects and alcoholics as assessed with PET, MR imaging, and neuropsychologic testing. Radiology 1993, 186, 59–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verma, R.; Kumar, C. Wernicke’s Encephalopathy: Typical Disease with an Atypical Clinicoradiological Manifestation. J. Neurosci. Rural Pract. 2020, 11, 487–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Patel, A.; Biso, G.M.N.R.; Fowler, J.B. Neuroanatomy, Temporal Lobe; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2022. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519512/ (accessed on 15 October 2022).
- Moselhy, H.F.; Georgiou, G.; Kahn, A. Frontal Lobe Changes in Alcoholism: A Review of the Literature. Alcohol Alcohol. 2001, 36, 357–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sullivan, E.V.; Marsh, L.; Mathalon, D.H.; Lim, K.O.; Pfefferbaum, A. Relationship between Alcohol Withdrawal Seizures and Temporal Lobe White Matter Volume Deficits. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1996, 20, 348–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cardenas, V.A.; Studholme, C.; Gazdzinski, S.; Durazzo, T.C.; Meyerhoff, D.J. Deformation-based morphometry of brain changes in alcohol dependence and abstinence. NeuroImage 2007, 34, 879–887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Waszkiewicz, N.; Galińska-Skok, B.; Nestsiarovich, A.; Kułak-Bejda, A.; Wilczyńska, K.; Simonienko, K.; Kwiatkowski, M.; Konarzewska, B. Neurobiological Effects of Binge Drinking Help in Its Detection and Differential Diagnosis from Alcohol Dependence. Dis. Markers 2018, 2018, 5623683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Jean-Richard-Dit-Bressel, P.; Killcross, S.; McNally, G.P. Behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of punishment: Implications for psychiatric disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018, 43, 1639–1650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Davis, M.; Whalen, P.J. The amygdala: Vigilance and emotion. Mol. Psychiatry 2001, 6, 13–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Delaveau, P.; Salgado-Pineda, P.; Wicker, B.; Micallef-Roll, J.; Blin, O. Effect of levodopa on healthy volunteers’ facial emotion perception: An FMRI study. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 2005, 28, 255–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Konkel, A.; Cohen, N.J. Relational memory and the hippocampus: Representations and methods. Front. Neurosci. 2009, 3, 166–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sullivan, E.V.; Marsh, L.; Mathalon, D.H.; Lim, K.O.; Pfefferbaum, A. Anterior hippocampal volume deficits in nonamnesic, aging chronic alcoholics. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1995, 19, 110–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harding, A.J.; Wong, A.; Svoboda, M.; Kril, J.J.; Halliday, G.M. Chronic alcohol consumption does not cause hippocampal neuron loss in humans. Hippocampus 1997, 7, 78–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- White, A.M.; Matthews, D.B.; Best, P.J. Ethanol, memory, and hippocampal function: A review of recent findings. Hippocampus 2000, 10, 88–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bartels, C.; Kunert, H.J.; Stawicki, S.; Kröner-Herwig, B.; Ehrenreich, H.; Krampe, H. Recovery of hippocampus-related functions in chronic alcoholics during monitored long-term abstinence. Alcohol Alcohol. 2007, 42, 92–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sullivan, E.V.; Pfefferbaum, A. Neuroimaging of the Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. Alcohol Alcohol. 2009, 44, 155–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Baker, K.G.; Harding, A.J.; Halliday, G.M.; Kril, J.J.; Harper, C.G. Neuronal loss in functional zones of the cerebellum of chronic alcoholics with and without Wernicke’s encephalopathy. Neuroscience 1999, 91, 429–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sullivan, E.V. Compromised pontocerebellar and cerebellothalamocortical systems: Speculations on their contributions to cognitive and motor impairment in nonamnesic alcoholism. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2003, 27, 1409–1419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Desmond, J.E.; Chen, S.H.A.; DeRosa, E.; Pryor, M.R.; Pfefferbaum, A.; Sullivan, E.V. Increased frontocerebellar activation in alcoholics during verbal working memory: An fMRI study. Neuroimage 2003, 19, 1510–1520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jung, M.E. Alcohol Withdrawal and Cerebellar Mitochondria. Cerebellum 2015, 14, 421–437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, J. Effects of Ethanol on the Cerebellum: Advances and Prospects. Cerebellum 2015, 14, 383–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fritz, M.; Klawonn, A.M.; Zahr, N.M. Neuroimaging in alcohol use disorder: From mouse to man. J. Neurosci. Res. 2022, 100, 1140–1158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zahr, N.M.; Mayer, D.; Rohlfing, T.; Hasak, M.P.; Hsu, O.; Vinco, S.; Orduna, J.; Luong, R.; Sullivan, E.V.; Pfefferbaum, A. Brain injury and recovery following binge ethanol: Evidence from in vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Biol. Psychiatry 2010, 67, 846–854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zahr, N.M.; Mayer, D.; Rohlfing, T.; Orduna, J.; Luong, R.; Sullivan, E.V.; Pfefferbaum, A. A mechanism of rapidly reversible cerebral ventricular enlargement independent of tissue atrophy. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013, 38, 1121–1129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zahr, N.M.; Pfefferbaum, A. Alcohol’s Effects on the Brain: Neuroimaging Results in Humans and Animal Models. Alcohol Res. 2017, 38, 183–206. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Pfefferbaum, A.; Zahr, N.M.; Mayer, D.; Vinco, S.; Orduna, J.; Rohlfing, T.; Sullivan, E.V. Ventricular expansion in wild-type Wistar rats after alcohol exposure by vapor chamber. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2008, 32, 1459–1467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zahr, N.M.; Mayer, D.; Vinco, S.; Orduna, J.; Luong, R.; Sullivan, E.V.; Pfefferbaum, A. In Vivo Evidence for Alcohol-Induced Neurochemical Changes in Rat Brain without Protracted Withdrawal, Pronounced Thiamine Deficiency, or Severe Liver Damage. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 34, 1427–1442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zahr, N.M.; Mayer, D.; Rohlfing, T.; Hsu, O.; Vinco, S.; Orduna, J.; Luong, R.; Bell, R.L.; Sullivan, E.V.; Pfefferbaum, A. Rat strain differences in brain structure and neurochemistry in response to binge alcohol. Psychopharmacology 2014, 231, 429–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhou, F.C.; Bledsoe, S.; Lumeng, L.; Li, T.K. Immunostained serotonergic fibers are decreased in selected brain regions of alcohol-preferring rats. Alcohol 1991, 8, 425–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, F.C.; Zhang, J.K.; Lumeng, L.; Li, T.K. Mesolimbic dopamine system in alcohol-preferring rats. Alcohol 1995, 12, 403–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miguel-Hidalgo, J.J. Lower Packing Density of Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein–Immunoreactive Astrocytes in the Prelimbic Cortex of Alcohol-I and Alcohol-Drinking Alcohol-Preferring Rats as Compared with Alcohol-Nonpreferring and Wistar Rats. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2005, 29, 766–772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gozzi, A.; Agosta, F.; Massi, M.; Ciccocioppo, R.; Bifone, A. Reduced limbic metabolism and fronto-cortical volume in rats vulnerable to alcohol addiction. Neuroimage 2013, 69, 112–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nixon, K.; Crews, F.T. Binge ethanol exposure decreases neurogenesis in adult rat hippocampus. J. Neurochem. 2002, 83, 1087–1093. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Crews, F.T.; Mdzinarishvili, A.; Kim, D.; He, J.; Nixon, K. Neurogenesis in adolescent brain is potently inhibited by ethanol. Neuroscience 2006, 137, 437–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Anderson, M.L.; Nokia, M.S.; Govindaraju, K.P.; Shors, T.J. Moderate drinking? Alcohol consumption significantly decreases neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus. Neuroscience 2012, 224, 202–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ehlers, C.L.; Liu, W.; Wills, D.N.; Crews, F.T. Periadolescent ethanol vapor exposure persistently reduces measures of hippocampal neurogenesis that are associated with behavioral outcomes in adulthood. Neuroscience 2013, 244, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Gass, J.T.; Glen, W.B., Jr.; McGonigal, J.T.; Trantham-Davidson, H.; Lopez, M.F.; Randall, P.K.; Yaxley, R.; Floresco, S.B.; Chandler, L.J. Adolescent alcohol exposure reduces behavioral flexibility, promotes disinhibition, and increases resistance to extinction of ethanol self-administration in adulthood. Neuropsychopharmacology 2014, 39, 2570–2583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hansson, A.C.; Nixon, K.; Rimondini, R.; Damadzic, R.; Sommer, W.H.; Eskay, R.; Crews, F.T.; Heilig, M. Long-term suppression of forebrain neurogenesis and loss of neuronal progenitor cells following prolonged alcohol dependence in rats. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010, 13, 583–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Coleman, L.G., Jr.; He, J.; Lee, J.; Styner, M.; Crews, F.T. Adolescent binge drinking alters adult brain neurotransmitter gene expression, behavior, brain regional volumes, and neurochemistry in mice. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2011, 35, 671–688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kuloglu, M.; Atmaca, M.; Tezcan, E.; Ustundag, B.; Bulut, S. Antioxidant enzyme and malondialdehyde levels in patients with panic disorder. Neuropsychobiology 2002, 46, 186–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hovatta, I.; Tennant, R.S.; Helton, R.; Marr, R.A.; Singer, O.; Redwine, J.M.; Ellison, J.A.; Schadt, E.E.; Verma, I.M.; Lockhart, D.J.; et al. Glyoxalase 1 and glutathione reductase 1 regulate anxiety in mice. Nature 2005, 438, 662–666. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krömer, S.A.; Keßler, M.S.; Milfay, D.; Birg, I.N.; Bunck, M.; Czibere, L.; Panhuysen, M.; Pütz, B.; Deussing, J.M.; Holsboer, F.; et al. Identification of Glyoxalase-I as a Protein Marker in a Mouse Model of Extremes in Trait Anxiety. J. Neurosci. 2005, 25, 4375–4384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ditzen, C.; Jastorff, A.M.; Kessler, M.S.; Bunck, M.; Teplytska, L.; Erhardt, A.; Krömer, S.A.; Varadarajuku, J.; Targosz, B.-S.; Sayan-Ayata, E.F.; et al. Protein biomarkers in a mouse model extremes in trait anxiety. Mol. Cell. Proteom. 2006, 5, 1914–1920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rammal, H.; Bouayed, J.; Younos, C.; Soulimani, R. The impact of high anxiety level on the oxidative status of mouse peripheral blood lymphocytes, granulocytes and monocytes. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2008, 589, 173–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rammal, H.; Bouayed, J.; Younos, C.; Soulimani, R. Evidence that oxidative stress is linked to anxiety-related behaviour in mice. Brain Behav. Immun. 2008, 22, 1156–1159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, C.; Yu, Y.; Ruan, L.; Wang, C.; Pan, J.; Klabnik, J.; Lueptow, L.; Zhang, H.-T.; O’Donnell, J.M.; Xu, Y. The roles of phosphodiesterase 2 in the central nervous and peripheral systems. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2015, 21, 274–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Urushitani, M.; Inoue, R.; Nakamizo, T.; Sawada, H.; Shibasaki, H.; Shimohama, S. Neuroprotective effect of cyclic GMP against radical-induced toxicity in cultured spinal motor neurons. J. Neurosci. Res. 2000, 61, 443–448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Masood, A.; Nadeem, A.; Mustafa, S.J.; O’Donnell, J.M. Reversal of oxidative stress-induced anxiety by inhibition of phosphodiesterase-2 in mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2008, 326, 369–379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tagliari, B.; Dos Santos, T.M.; Cunha, A.A.; Lima, D.D.; Delwing, D.; Sitta, A.; Vargas, C.R.; Dalmaz, C.; Wyse, A.T.S. Chronic variable stress induces oxidative stress and decreases butyrylcholinesterase activity in blood of rats. J. Neural Transm. 2010, 117, 1067–1076. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moretti, M.; Colla, A.; de Oliveira Balen, G.; dos Santos, D.B.; Budni, J.; de Freitas, A.E.; Farina, M.; Rodrigues, A.L.S. Ascorbic acid treatment, similarly to fluoxetine, reverses depressive-like behavior and brain oxidative damage induced by chronic unpredictable stress. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2012, 46, 331–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amr, M.; El-Mogy, A.; Shams, T.; Vieira, K.; Lakhan, S.E. Efficacy of vitamin C as an adjunct to fluoxetine therapy in pediatric major depressive disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Nutr. J. 2013, 12, 31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- McHugh, R.K.; Weiss, R.D. Alcohol Use Disorder and Depressive Disorders. Alcohol Res. 2019, 40, arcr.v40.1.01. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- The Alcohol-Depression Connection: Symptoms, Treatment & More. Available online: https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/alcohol-and-depression (accessed on 13 May 2021).
- Bajpai, A.; Verma, A.K.; Srivastava, M.; Srivastava, R. Oxidative stress and major depression. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 2014, 8, CC4–CC7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Salim, S. Oxidative Stress and the Central Nervous System. J. Pharmacol Exp. Ther. 2017, 360, 201–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Das, S.K.; Vasudevan, D.M. Alcohol-induced oxidative stress. Life Sci. 2007, 81, 177–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hulbert, A.J.; Pamplona, R.; Buffenstein, R.; Buttemer, W.A. Life and death: Metabolic rate, membrane composition, and life span of animals. Physiol. Rev. 2007, 87, 1175–1213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ayala, A.; Muñoz, M.F.; Argüelles, S. Lipid peroxidation: Production, metabolism, and signaling mechanisms of malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2014, 2014, 360438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Salim, S. Oxidative stress and psychological disorders. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 2014, 12, 140–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Finn, D.A.; Crabbe, J.C. Exploring Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome. Alcohol Health Res. World 1997, 21, 149–156. [Google Scholar]
- Schuckit, M.A. Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens). N. Engl. J. Med. 2014, 371, 2109–2113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis. Available online: https://www.healthline.com/health/alcoholism/withdrawal#symptoms (accessed on 16 May 2021).
- Rahman, A.; Paul, M. Delirium Tremens; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2022. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482134/ (accessed on 1 February 2022).
- Grand Mal Seizure—Symptoms and Causes. Mayo Clinic. Available online: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/grand-mal-seizure/symptoms-causes/syc-20363458 (accessed on 16 May 2021).
- Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome. Available online: https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/treatment-of-alcohol-withdrawal-syndrome (accessed on 16 May 2021).
- How Is Body Temperature Regulated and What Is Fever? 2016. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279457/ (accessed on 3 September 2021).
- Withdrawal Syndromes: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology. Available online: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/819502-overview#a6 (accessed on 3 September 2021).
- Tolerance, Dependence, Addiction: What’s the Difference? NIDA Archives. Available online: https://archives.drugabuse.gov/blog/post/tolerance-dependence-addiction-whats-difference (accessed on 3 September 2021).
- Banerjee, N. Neurotransmitters in alcoholism: A review of neurobiological and genetic studies. Indian J. Hum. Genet. 2014, 20, 20–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gianoulakis, C. Influence of the endogenous opioid system on high alcohol consumption and genetic predisposition to alcoholism. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 2001, 26, 304–318. [Google Scholar]
- Sprouse-Blum, A.S.; Smith, G.; Sugai, D.; Parsa, F.D. Understanding endorphins and their importance in pain management. Hawaii Med. J. 2010, 69, 70–71. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Dupont, A.; Cusan, L.; Garon, M.; Labrie, F.; Li, C.H. Beta-endorphin: Stimulation of growth hormone release in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1977, 74, 358–359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pathan, H.; Williams, J. Basic opioid pharmacology: An update. Br. J. Pain 2012, 6, 11–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thiagarajan, A.B.; Mefford, I.N.; Eskay, R.L. Single-dose ethanol administration activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: Exploration of the mechanism of action. Neuroendocrinology 1989, 50, 427–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Waele, J.P.; Papachristou, D.N.; Gianoulakis, C. The alcohol-preferring C57BL/6 mice present an enhanced sensitivity of the hypothalamic beta-endorphin system to ethanol than the alcohol-avoiding DBA/2 mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1992, 261, 788–794. [Google Scholar]
- De Waele, J.P.; Gianoulakis, C. Effects of single and repeated exposures to ethanol on hypothalamic beta-endorphin and CRH release by the C57BL/6 and DBA/2 strains of mice. Neuroendocrinology 1993, 57, 700–709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gianoulakis, C.; Hutchison, W.D.; Kalant, H. Effects of ethanol treatment and withdrawal on biosynthesis and processing of proopiomelanocortin by the rat neurointermediate lobe. Endocrinology 1988, 122, 817–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seizinger, B.R.; Höllt, V.; Herz, A. Effects of chronic ethanol treatment on the in vitro biosynthesis of pro-opiomelanocortin and its posttranslational processing to beta-endorphin in the intermediate lobe of the rat pituitary. J. Neurochem. 1984, 43, 607–613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scanlon, M.N.; Lazar-Wesley, E.; Grant, K.A.; Kunos, G. Proopiomelanocortin messenger RNA is decreased in the mediobasal hypothalamus of rats made dependent on ethanol. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1992, 16, 1147–1151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angelogianni, P.; Gianoulakis, C. Chronic ethanol increases proopiomelanocortin gene expression in the rat hypothalamus. Neuroendocrinology 1993, 57, 106–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nylander, I.; Hyytiä, P.; Forsander, O.; Terenius, L. Differences between alcohol-preferring (AA) and alcohol-avoiding (ANA) rats in the prodynorphin and proenkephalin systems. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1994, 18, 1272–1279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Marinelli, P.W.; Kiianmaa, K.; Gianoulakis, C. Opioid propeptide mRNA content and receptor density in the brains of AA and ANA rats. Life Sci. 2000, 66, 1915–1927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ng, G.Y.; O’Dowd, B.F.; George, S.R. Genotypic differences in mesolimbic enkephalin gene expression in DBA/2J and C57BL/6J inbred mice. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1996, 311, 45–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jamensky, N.T.; Gianoulakis, C. Content of Dynorphins and k-Opioid Receptors in Distinct Brain Regions of C57BL/6 and DBA/2 Mice. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1997, 21, 1455–1464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fadda, P.; Tronci, S.; Colombo, G.; Fratta, W. Differences in the opioid system in selected brain regions of alcohol-preferring and alcohol-nonpreferring rats. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1999, 23, 1296–1305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Turchan, J.; Przewłocka, B.; Toth, G.; Lasoń, W.; Borsodi, A.; Przewłocki, R. The effect of repeated administration of morphine, cocaine and ethanol on mu and delta opioid receptor density in the nucleus accumbens and striatum of the rat. Neuroscience 1999, 91, 971–977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heyser, C.J.; Roberts, A.J.; Schulteis, G.; Koob, G.F. Central administration of an opiate antagonist decreases oral ethanol self-administration in rats. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1999, 23, 1468–1476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anton, R.F. Naltrexone for the management of alcohol dependence. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008, 359, 715–721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Naltrexone for Alcoholism Treatment. Addiction Center. Available online: https://www.addictioncenter.com/alcohol/naltrexone-for-alcoholism-treatment/ (accessed on 3 September 2021).
- Modesto-Lowe, V.; Huard, J.; Conrad, C. Alcohol withdrawal kindling: Is there a role for anticonvulsants? Psychiatry 2005, 2, 25–31. [Google Scholar]
- Becker, H.C.; Diaz-Granados, J.L.; Weathersby, R.T. Repeated ethanol withdrawal experience increases the severity and duration of subsequent withdrawal seizures in mice. Alcohol 1997, 14, 319–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verleye, M.; Heulard, I.; Gillardin, J.M. The anxiolytic etifoxine protects against convulsant and anxiogenic aspects of the alcohol withdrawal syndrome in mice. Alcohol 2009, 43, 197–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Myrick, H.; Malcolm, R.; Randall, P.K.; Boyle, E.; Anton, R.F.; Becker, H.C.; Randall, C.L. A double-blind trial of gabapentin versus lorazepam in the treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2009, 33, 1582–1588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bourin, M. Mechanism of Action of Valproic Acid and Its Derivatives. 2020. Available online: https://symbiosisonlinepublishing.com/pharmacy-pharmaceuticalsciences/pharmacy-pharmaceuticalsciences99.pdf (accessed on 30 September 2021).
- Becker, H.C.; Veatch, L.M. Effects of lorazepam treatment for multiple ethanol withdrawals in mice. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2002, 26, 371–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Veatch, L.M.; Gonzalez, L.P. Repeated ethanol withdrawal produces site-dependent increases in EEG spiking. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1996, 20, 262–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mhatre, M.C.; McKenzie, S.E.; Gonzalez, L.P. Diazepam during prior ethanol withdrawals does not alter seizure susceptibility during a subsequent withdrawal. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2001, 68, 339–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barrons, R.; Roberts, N. The role of carbamazepine and oxcarbazepine in alcohol withdrawal syndrome. J. Clin. Pharm. Ther. 2010, 35, 153–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Slominski, A. On the role of the corticotropin-releasing hormone signalling system in the aetiology of inflammatory skin disorders. Br. J. Dermveatchatol. 2009, 160, 229–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Heilig, M.; Koob, G.F. A key role for corticotropin-releasing factor in alcohol dependence. Trends Neurosci. 2007, 30, 399–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nie, Z.; Schweitzer, P.; Roberts, A.J.; Madamba, S.G.; Moore, S.D.; Siggins, G.R. Ethanol Augments GABAergic Transmission in the Central Amygdala via CRF1 Receptors. Science 2004, 303, 1512–1514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawley, R.J.; Nemeroff, C.B.; Bissette, G.; Guidotti, A.; Rawlings, R.; Linnoila, M. Neurochemical correlates of sympathetic activation during severe alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1994, 18, 1312–1316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rasmussen, D.D.; Wilkinson, C.W.; Raskind, M.A. Chronic daily ethanol and withdrawal: 6. Effects on rat sympathoadrenal activity during “abstinence”. Alcohol 2006, 38, 173–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Baldwin, H.A.; Rassnick, S.; Rivier, J.; Koob, G.F.; Britton, K.T. CRF antagonist reverses the “anxiogenic” response to ethanol withdrawal in the rat. Psychopharmacology 1991, 103, 227–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Funk, C.K.; O’Dell, L.E.; Crawford, E.F.; Koob, G.F. Corticotropin-releasing factor within the central nucleus of the amygdala mediates enhanced ethanol self-administration in withdrawn, ethanol-dependent rats. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26, 11324–11332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Funk, C.K.; Zorrilla, E.P.; Lee, M.J.; Rice, K.C.; Koob, G.F. Corticotropin-Releasing Factor 1 Antagonists Selectively Reduce Ethanol Self-Administration in Ethanol-Dependent Rats. Biol. Psychiatry 2007, 61, 78–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Overstreet, D.H.; Knapp, D.J.; Breese, G.R. Modulation of multiple ethanol withdrawal-induced anxiety-like behavior by CRF and CRF1 receptors. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2004, 77, 405–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spina, M.G.; Merlo-Pich, E.; Akwa, Y.; Balducci, C.; Basso, A.; Zorrilla, E.; Britton, K.; Rivier, L.; Vale, W.; Koob, G. Time-dependent induction of anxiogenic-like effects after central infusion of urocortin or corticotropin-releasing factor in the rat. Psychopharmacology 2002, 160, 113–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lê, A.D.; Harding, S.; Juzytsch, W.; Watchus, J.; Shalev, U.; Shaham, Y. The role of corticotrophin-releasing factor in stress-induced relapse to alcohol-seeking behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology 2000, 150, 317–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, X.; Weiss, F. Additive effect of stress and drug cues on reinstatement of ethanol seeking: Exacerbation by history of dependence and role of concurrent activation of corticotropin-releasing factor and opioid mechanisms. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22, 7856–7861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lê, A.D.; Harding, S.; Juzytsch, W.; Fletcher, P.J.; Shaham, Y. The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in the median raphe nucleus in relapse to alcohol. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22, 7844–7849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, H.; Chen, Z. The role of BDNF in depression on the basis of its location in the neural circuitry. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 2011, 32, 3–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Park, H.; Poo, M.M. Neurotrophin regulation of neural circuit development and function. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2013, 14, 7–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dwivedi, Y. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor: Role in depression and suicide. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 2009, 5, 433–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Roni, M.A.; Rahman, S. Lobeline attenuates ethanol abstinence-induced depression-like behavior in mice. Alcohol 2017, 61, 63–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ghitza, U.E.; Zhai, H.; Wu, P.; Airavaara, M.; Shaham, Y.; Lu, L. Role of BDNF and GDNF in drug reward and relapse: A review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2010, 35, 157–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hou, L.; Guo, Y.; Lian, B.; Wang, Y.; Li, C.; Wang, G.; Li, Q.; Pang, J.; Sun, H.; Sun, L. Synaptic Ultrastructure Might Be Involved in HCN1-Related BDNF mRNA in Withdrawal-Anxiety after Ethanol Dependence. Front. Psychiatry 2018, 9, 215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, F.G.; Hu, W.F.; Wang, J.L.; Wang, P.; Gong, Y.; Tong, L.J.; Jiang, B.; Zhang, W.; Qin, Y.-B.; Chen, Z.; et al. Z-Guggulsterone Produces Antidepressant-Like Effects in Mice through Activation of the BDNF Signaling Pathway. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017, 20, 485–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Chen, Z.Y.; Patel, P.D.; Sant, G.; Meng, C.-X.; Teng, K.K.; Hempstead, B.L.; Lee, F.S. Variant brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (Met66) alters the intracellular trafficking and activity-dependent secretion of wild-type BDNF in neurosecretory cells and cortical neurons. J. Neurosci. 2004, 24, 4401–4411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Monteggia, L.M.; Luikart, B.; Barrot, M.; Theobold, D.; Malkovska, I.; Nef, S.; Parada, L.F.; Nestler, E.J. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Conditional Knockouts Show Gender Differences. Biol. Psychiatry 2007, 61, 187–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Duman, R.S.; Monteggia, L.M. A Neurotrophic Model for Stress-Related Mood Disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 2006, 59, 1116–1127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Videbech, P.; Ravnkilde, B. Hippocampal volume and depression: A meta-analysis of MRI studies. Am. J. Psychiatry 2004, 161, 1957–1966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lucassen, P.J.; Müller, M.B.; Holsboer, F.; Bauer, J.; Holtrop, A.; Wouda, J.; Hoogendijk, W.J.G.; De Kloet, E.R.; Swaab, D.F. Hippocampal apoptosis in major depression is a minor event and absent from subareas at risk for glucocorticoid overexposure. Am. J. Pathol. 2001, 158, 453–468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Stockmeier, C.A.; Mahajan, G.J.; Konick, L.C.; Overholser, J.C.; Jurjus, G.J.; Meltzer, H.Y.; Uylings, H.B.M.; Friedman, L.; Rajkowska, G. Cellular changes in the postmortem hippocampus in major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 2004, 56, 640–650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- MacQueen, G.M.; Yucel, K.; Taylor, V.H.; Macdonald, K.; Joffe, R. Posterior hippocampal volumes are associated with remission rates in patients with major depressive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 64, 880–883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kronmüller, K.T.; Pantel, J.; Köhler, S.; Victor, D.; Giesel, F.; Magnotta, V.A.; Mundt, C.; Essig, M.; Schröder, J. Hippocampal volume and 2-year outcome in depression. Br. J. Psychiatry 2008, 192, 472–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dwivedi, Y.; Rao, J.S.; Rizavi, H.S.; Kotowski, J.; Conley, R.R.; Roberts, R.C.; Tamminga, C.A.; Pandey, G.N. Abnormal expression and functional characteristics of cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein in postmortem brain of suicide subjects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2003, 60, 273–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, B.; Dowlatshahi, D.; MacQueen, G.M.; Wang, J.-F.; Young, L.T. Increased hippocampal bdnf immunoreactivity in subjects treated with antidepressant medication. Biol. Psychiatry 2001, 50, 260–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Russo-Neustadt, A.A.; Alejandre, H.; Garcia, C.; Ivy, A.S.; Chen, M.J. Hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression following treatment with reboxetine, citalopram, and physical exercise. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004, 29, 2189–2199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nibuya, M.; Morinobu, S.; Duman, R.S. Regulation of BDNF and trkB mRNA in rat brain by chronic electroconvulsive seizure and antidepressant drug treatments. J. Neurosci. 1995, 15, 7539–7547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shirayama, Y.; Chen, A.C.; Nakagawa, S.; Russell, D.S.; Duman, R.S. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor produces antidepressant effects in behavioral models of depression. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22, 3251–3261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Deltheil, T.; Guiard, B.P.; Cerdan, J.; David, D.J.; Tanaka, K.F.; Repérant, C.; Guilloux, J.-P.; Coudoré, F.; Hen, R.; Gardier, A.M. Behavioral and serotonergic consequences of decreasing or increasing hippocampus brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein levels in mice. Neuropharmacology 2008, 55, 1006–1014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmidt, H.D.; Duman, R.S. Peripheral BDNF produces antidepressant-like effects in cellular and behavioral models. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010, 35, 2378–2391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Poduslo, J.F.; Curran, G.L. Permeability at the blood-brain and blood-nerve barriers of the neurotrophic factors: NGF, CNTF, NT-3, BDNF. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 1996, 36, 280–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Pardridge, W.M. Conjugation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor to a blood-brain barrier drug targeting system enables neuroprotection in regional brain ischemia following intravenous injection of the neurotrophin. Brain Res. 2001, 889, 49–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pan, W.; Banks, W.A.; Fasold, M.B.; Bluth, J.; Kastin, A.J. Transport of brain-derived neurotrophic factor across the blood-brain barrier. Neuropharmacology 1998, 37, 1553–1561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pearse, R.N.; Swendeman, S.L.; Li, Y.; Rafii, D.; Hempstead, B.L. A neurotrophin axis in myeloma: TrkB and BDNF promote tumor-cell survival. Blood 2005, 105, 4429–4436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisch, A.J.; Bolaños, C.A.; de Wit, J.; Simonak, R.D.; Pudiak, C.M.; Barrot, M.; Verhaagen, J.; Nestler, E.J. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the ventral midbrain-nucleus accumbens pathway: A role in depression. Biol. Psychiatry 2003, 54, 994–1005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siuciak, J.A.; Lewis, D.R.; Wiegand, S.J.; Lindsay, R.M. Antidepressant-like effect of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1997, 56, 131–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoshaw, B.A.; Malberg, J.E.; Lucki, I. Central administration of IGF-I and BDNF leads to long-lasting antidepressant-like effects. Brain Res. 2005, 1037, 204–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hacioglu, G.; Senturk, A.; Ince, I.; Alver, A. Assessment of oxidative stress parameters of brain-derived neurotrophic factor heterozygous mice in acute stress model. Iran. J. Basic Med. Sci. 2016, 19, 388–393. [Google Scholar]
- Parthasarathy, R.; Kattimani, S.; Sridhar, M.G. Oxidative stress during alcohol withdrawal and its relationship with withdrawal severity. Indian J. Psychol. Med. 2015, 37, 175–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gonzaga, N.A.; Mecawi, A.S.; Antunes-Rodrigues, J.; de Martinis, B.S.; Padovan, C.M.; Tirapelli, C.R. Ethanol withdrawal increases oxidative stress and reduces nitric oxide bioavailability in the vasculature of rats. Alcohol 2015, 49, 47–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Assis, V.O.; Gonzaga, N.A.; Silva, C.B.P.; Pereira, L.C.; Padovan, C.M.; Tirapelli, C.R. Ethanol Withdrawal Alters the Oxidative State of the Heart Through AT1-Dependent Mechanisms. Alcohol Alcohol. 2020, 55, 3–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Iovieno, N.; Tedeschini, E.; Bentley, K.H.; Evins, A.E.; Papakostas, G.I. Antidepressants for major depressive disorder and dysthymic disorder in patients with comorbid alcohol use disorders: A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomized trials. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2011, 72, 1144–1151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nunes, E.V.; Levin, F.R. Treatment of depression in patients with alcohol or other drug dependence: A meta-analysis. JAMA 2004, 291, 1887–1896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Agabio, R.; Trogu, E.; Pani, P.P. Antidepressants for the treatment of people with co-occurring depression and alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2018, 4, CD008581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torrens, M.; Fonseca, F.; Mateu, G.; Farré, M. Efficacy of antidepressants in substance use disorders with and without comorbid depression. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005, 78, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nunes, E.V.; Quitkin, F.M.; Donovan, S.J.; Deliyannides, D.; Ocepek-Welikson, K.; Koenig, T.; Brady, R.; McGrath, P.J.; Woody, G. Imipramine treatment of opiate-dependent patients with depressive disorders. A placebo-controlled trial. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1998, 55, 153–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Petrakis, I.; Ralevski, E.; Nich, C.; Levinson, C.; Carroll, K.; Poling, J.; Rounsaville, B.; VA VISN I MIRECC Study Group. Naltrexone and disulfiram in patients with alcohol dependence and current depression. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2007, 27, 160–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lejoyeux, M.; Lehert, P. Alcohol-use disorders and depression: Results from individual patient data meta-analysis of the acamprosate-controlled studies. Alcohol Alcohol. 2011, 46, 61–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pettinati, H.M.; Oslin, D.W.; Kampman, K.M.; Dundon, W.D.; Xie, H.; Gallis, T.L.; Dackis, C.A.; O’Brien, C.P. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial combining sertraline and naltrexone for treating co-occurring depression and alcohol dependence. Am. J. Psychiatry 2010, 167, 668–675. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Witte, J.; Bentley, K.; Evins, A.E.; Clain, A.J.; Baer, L.; Pedrelli, P.; Fava, M.; Mischoulon, D. A Randomized, Controlled, Pilot Study of Acamprosate Added to Escitalopram in Adults with Major Depressive Disorder and Alcohol Use Disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2012, 32, 787–796. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Structure | Alcohol Consumption | |
---|---|---|
Acute/Binge Drinking | Chronic | |
Frontal lobe | Decreased rate of glucose metabolism Decreased regional blood flow plus physiological abnormalities | Reduced neuronal density in post-mortem samples Reduced volume of frontal lobe Dysfunction |
Temporal lobe | Increased electroencephalogram density of both beta and theta oscillations in right temporal lobe and bilateral occipital cortex → difficulty in cognitive processing and reduced response to stimulation Reduced episodic and verbal memory, impaired vision, vigilance, and sustained attention | Reduced volume in cortical grey and white matter and the anterior hippocampus Reduced tissue in foci in continuous light drinkers |
Limbic systems | Increased dopamine release in striatum Reduced cortical thickness in pruning regions of the cortex Increased risk of neurocognitive dysfunction coupled with hippocampus and entorhinal cortex dysfunction | Altered and disrupted proliferation and survival of neurons → cognitive impairments Decreased hippocampal volume that is more prominent in the left side than the right (correctable after a period of abstinence) Negatively impacted mamillary body that regulates feeding reflexes of the hypothalamus → memory deficit Reduced amygdala activity stimulation → reduced ability to recognise and interpret negative emotions |
Cerebellum | Central nervous dysfunction Increased volume Reduced fractional anisotropy ratio, marker of white matter integrity | Decreased cerebellar vermis volume Reduced vermal white matter in those experiencing ataxia Reduced Purkinje cell density in the vermal region and volumetric decrease in molecular layer containing stellate and basket interneurons in chronic abusers with Korsakoff’s amnesic syndrome |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ngui, H.H.L.; Kow, A.S.F.; Lai, S.; Tham, C.L.; Ho, Y.-C.; Lee, M.T. Alcohol Withdrawal and the Associated Mood Disorders—A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 14912. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232314912
Ngui HHL, Kow ASF, Lai S, Tham CL, Ho Y-C, Lee MT. Alcohol Withdrawal and the Associated Mood Disorders—A Review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(23):14912. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232314912
Chicago/Turabian StyleNgui, Helena Hui Lin, Audrey Siew Foong Kow, Sally Lai, Chau Ling Tham, Yu-Cheng Ho, and Ming Tatt Lee. 2022. "Alcohol Withdrawal and the Associated Mood Disorders—A Review" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 23: 14912. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232314912