Black Garlic and Its Bioactive Compounds on Human Health Diseases: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Data Collection
3. Thermal Processing of Black Garlic
4. Composition of Black Garlic
5. Formation of Phytochemicals of Black Garlic during Millard Reaction
6. Impact of Black Garlic on Health Promotion and Diseases Treatment
6.1. Effects of Black Garlic on Metabolic Disorders
6.1.1. Black Garlic and Diabetes Mellitus
6.1.2. Black Garlic and Obesity
6.2. Effects of Black Garlic on Genitourinary Tract Diseases
6.3. Effects of Black Garlic on Digestive Diseases
6.3.1. Black Garlic and Liver Diseases
6.3.2. Black Garlic and Inflammatory Diseases
6.3.3. Black Garlic and Other Gastrointestinal Diseases
6.4. Effects of Black Garlic on Cardiovascular System Diseases
6.4.1. Black Garlic and Platelet Aggregation
6.4.2. Black Garlic and Arterial Hypertension
6.4.3. Black Garlic and Atherosclerosis
6.5. Effects of Black Garlic on Neurodegenerative Diseases
6.6. Effects of Black Garlic on Cancer Diseases
7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BG | black garlic |
Temp. | temperature |
5-HMF | 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural |
SAC | s-allyl cysteine |
FG | fresh garlic |
BG | black garlic |
DM | dry matter |
DW | dry weight |
FM | fresh matter |
GAE | gallic acid equivalent |
QE | quercetin equivalent |
RE | rutin equivalent |
CAE | catechin equivalents |
OD | optical density |
SAC | s-allyl cysteine |
NF-κβ | nuclear factor-κβ |
HDL-C | high-density lipoprotein cholesterol |
GOT | glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase |
GPT | glutamic pyruvic transaminase |
γ-GTP | γ-glutamyl transpeptidase |
SOD | superoxide dismutase |
GSH-Px | glutathione peroxidase |
CAT | catalase |
GHb | glycated hemoglobin |
STZ | streptozotocin |
TBARS | thiobarbituric acid reactive substances |
TNF-α | tumor necrosis factor-α |
IL-6 | interleukin-6 |
LDL | low-density lipoprotein |
TG | triglyceride |
TC | total cholesterol |
C/EBP α | CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α |
UCP1 | uncoupling protein 1 |
CPT1 | carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1 |
ACO | acyl-coenzyme A oxidase |
HSL | hormone sensitive lipase |
ATGL | adipose triglyceride lipase |
Sirt1 | sirtuin 1 |
FOXO1 | forkhead box O1 |
PPAR α | peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α |
AMPK | AMP-activated protein kinase |
SREBP-1c | sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c |
ACC | acetyl-CoA carboxylase |
FAS | fatty acid synthase |
SCD1 | stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 |
HFD | high-fat diet |
LPO | lipid peroxidation |
GSSG | glutathione disulfide |
ADP | adenosine diphosphate |
RAS | renin-angiotensin system |
OFRs | oxygen free radicals |
PVN | paraventricular nucleus |
CSAR | cardiac sympathetic afferent reflex |
ACE | angiotensin-converting enzyme |
Fru-Arg | N-(1-deoxy-D-fructos-1-yl)-l-arginine |
Fru-Met | N-(1-deoxy-D-fructos-1-yl)-l-methionine |
CAC | coronary artery calcification |
CRP | c-reactive protein |
EAT | epicardial adipose tissue |
PAT | pericardial adipose tissue |
PaAT | periaortic adipose tissue |
SAT | subcutaneous adipose tissue |
IgG | immunoglobulin G |
IgM | immunoglobulin M |
MDA-LDL | malondialdehyde-low-density lipoprotein |
HDL | high-density lipoprotein |
OxPL/apoB | oxidized phospholipids/apolipoprotein B |
LP | lipoprotein |
GAD | glutamate decarboxylase |
VGLUT1 | vesicular glutamate transporter 1 |
GSK-3β | glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta |
sAPP α | soluble amyloid precursor protein α |
Aβ | β-amyloid |
TEAC | trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity |
GSH | glutathione |
GRd | glutathione reductase |
GPx | glutathione peroxidase |
PPARγ | proliferator activated receptor γ |
Ser-pHSL | serum-phosphorylated HSL |
Mn-SOD | manganese superoxide dismutase |
GR | glutathione reductase |
Nrf2 | nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2 |
NO | nitric oxide |
COX-2 | cyclooxygenase-2 |
TGF-β1 | transforming growth factor beta 1 |
AST | aspartate transaminase |
ALT | alanine transaminase |
LDL-C | low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol |
LDH | lactate dehydrogenase |
ALP | alkaline phosphatase |
ATP | adenosine triphosphate |
IL-1β | interleukin-1β |
BCL-2 | B-cell lymphoma 2 |
Bax | BCL2-associated X protein |
MDA | malondialdehyde |
MAPK | mitogen-activated protein kinase |
LDL/V-LDL | low density lipoprotein/very-low-density lipoprotein |
GSH-Rd | glutathione reductase |
ERK | extracellular-signal-regulated kinase |
JNK | c-Jun N-terminal kinase |
LPS | lipopolysaccharides |
VCAM-1 | vascular cell adhesion protein-1 |
ICAM-1 | intercellular adhesion molecule-1 |
iNOS | inducible nitric oxide synthase |
AP-1 | activator protein-1 |
PGE2 | prostaglandin E2 |
MPO | myeloperoxidase |
tGSH | total glutathione |
BW | body weight |
BMI | body mass index |
LDL-C/apo-B | low-density lipoprotein cholesterol/apolipoprotein B |
TXB2 | Thromboxane B2 |
SERBP-2 | sterol regulatory element binding protein-2 |
ACAT-2 | acetyltransferase-2 |
HMG-CoA | 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A |
MPP+ | 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion |
GLUT3 | glucose transporter 3 |
GCLC | glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit |
G6-PD | glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase |
PC | Protein carbonyl |
8-OHdG | 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine |
mRNA | messenger ribonucleic acid |
NMDA | N-methyl-D-aspartate |
cdk1 | cyclin-dependent kinase 1 |
MMP-2 | matrix metalloproteinase-2 |
MMP-9 | matrix metalloproteinase-9 |
DOX | doxorubicin |
P-gp | p-glycoprotein |
TGF-β1 | transforming growth factor beta 1 |
TβRII | type II TGF-β receptor |
p-samd 2/3 | phosphorylated-suppressor of mothers against decapentaplegic 2/3 |
smad 4 | suppressor of mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 4 |
smad7 | suppressor of mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 7 |
Id-1 | inhibitor of differentiation-1 |
SNAP25 | synaptosomal associated protein of 25 kDa |
ABTS | 2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid |
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Temperature | Relative Humidity | Durations (Days) | Results | Ref. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
60 °C | 80% | 69 | Temp. | Moisture | [41] | ||
70 °C | 33 | Allicin | |||||
80 °C | 24 | ||||||
90 °C | 12 | HMF | |||||
Total phenols | |||||||
Total acids | |||||||
70 °C | 90% | 35 | Redness Brightness and yellowness | [46] | |||
Crude fat, crude protein, total sugar, | |||||||
total pyruvate, glucose, amino acids | |||||||
70 °C | 90% | 21 | Redness Lightness and yellowness pH | [40] | |||
Total polyphenol, total flavonoid, | |||||||
total acidity, reducing sugar | |||||||
65 °C | 70% | 16 | Polyphenol content (85 °C, 70% RH) | [42] | |||
75 °C | 75% | ||||||
78 °C | 80% | Reducing sugar, total sugar | |||||
85% | total acids, 5-HMF (75 °C, 85% RH) | ||||||
72 °C | ~90% | 33 | pH | [44] | |||
Temp. | |||||||
75 °C | Polyphenols, antioxidant, | ||||||
Browning intensity | |||||||
78 °C | |||||||
90 °C (1st step) | 2 | Moisture (4th step) | [43] | ||||
80 °C (2nd step) | 4 | Total phenolic and flavonoids (4th step) | |||||
60 °C (3rd step) | 4 | Total pyruvate and thiosulfate (4th step) | |||||
40 °C (4th step) | 1 | Mineral content (4th step) | |||||
65–80 °C | 70–80% | 30–40 | SAC | [45] | |||
70 °C | 90% | 10 | SAC (15 days) | [47] | |||
15 | |||||||
20 | |||||||
40 °C | 70% | 45 | Moisture | [16] | |||
pH | |||||||
Temp. | |||||||
55 °C | Browning density | ||||||
70 °C | SAC | ||||||
85 °C | Antioxidant activity |
Phytochemical | Total Content in Fresh Garlic | Total Content in Black Garlic | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Amino acid | 843.11 ± 3.75 mg/100 g | 167.65 ± 1.08−363.10 ± 1.05 mg/100 g | [73] |
121.38 ± 4.72 mg/100 g | 60.84 ± 5.75−108.66 ± 12.95 mg/100 g | [46] | |
19.43 ± 0.01 mg/g FM | 14.86 ± 0.01 mg/g FM | [79] | |
57.66 mg/g sample powder | 44.01 mg/g sample powder | [80] | |
1943.77 ± 161.22 mg/100 g | 1486.65 ± 112.62 mg/100 g | [81] | |
1528.75 ± 0.83 mg/100 g | 1931.13 ± 175.48 mg/100 g | [40] | |
Minerals | 1173.50 ± 2.43 mg/100 g | 1314.68 ± 2.76 mg/100 g | [73] |
15,908 mg/kg dry powder | 13,227.41 mg/kg dry powder | [80] | |
567.88 ± 4.48 mg/100 g | 969.12 ± 19.31 mg/100 g | [40] | |
Reducing sugar | 58.37 ± 1.54 mg/100 g | 394.52 ± 3.29 mg/100 g | [40] |
1.52 ± 0.01 g/kg | 12.42 ± 0.85−16.07 ± 0.38 g/kg | [46] | |
295.54 ± 2.01 mg/100 g | 754.51 ± 4.05−4726.04 ± 15.74 mg/100 g | [73] | |
5.9 ± 0.8 g/kg DM | 472.4 ± 46.5 g/kg DM | [18] | |
Total phenol | 1000 µg/g | 8200 µg/g | [63] |
18 mg GAE/kg DM | 80–140 mg GAE/kg DM | [82] | |
89468.55 mg QE/kg dry basis | 101,328.71–157,312.77 mg QE/kg dry basis | [83] | |
14 mg GAE/g | 20–60 mg GAE/g | [46] | |
15,200 mg GAE/kg | 24,050 mg GAE/kg | [65] | |
5150 mg GAE/kg DM | 14,900 mg GAE/kg DM | [44] | |
Total flavonoid | 2348.65 mg GAE/kg dry basis | 3825.51−27,191.38 mg GAE/kg dry basis | [83] |
3.22 ± 0.07 mg RE/g | 5.38 ± 0.06−15.70 ± 2.11 mg RE/g | [46] | |
30.03 mg/kg DM | 30–105 mg/kg DM | [82] | |
0.25 mg/100 g | 0.70 mg/100 g | [43] | |
0.20 mg/100 g FG water extract | 0.50 mg/100 g BG water extract | [84] | |
1.40 µg CAE/mg | 1.92 µg CAE/mg | [85] | |
SAC | 42.7 µg/g DM | 656.5 µg/g DM | [86] |
2.5 mg/g DW | 8.05 mg/g DW | [87] | |
95.07 ± 1.84−427.05 ± 3.56 µg/g | [88] | ||
85.46 ± 0.81−124.67 ± 1.61 µg/g | [16] | ||
73.5 ± 12.5 µg/g DW | 242.3 ± 6.1 µg/g DW | [89] | |
2.4 mg/100 g | 19.4 mg/100 g | [90] | |
5-HMF | 0.25 ± 0.04 g/kg FM | [65] | |
4.82 ± 0.06 g/kg | [41] | ||
6–8 g/kg | [42] | ||
Melanoidin | ˂ 0.2 OD FM | ~2 OD FM | [75] |
Ash | 73.59 ± 0.89 mg/100 g | 75.36 ± 0.02−114.36 ± 8.65 mg/100 g | [73] |
0.92 ± 0.62 % | 1.81 ± 0.05 % | [40] | |
Volatile compounds | 49.76 µg/g | 39.04−100.46 µg/g | [83] |
Organic acid | 16.70 ± 0.61 g/kg DM | 64.50 ± 7.55 g/kg DM | [41] |
Alkaloid | Trace amount | 30-fold increase of FM | [91] |
Lipid | 0.20 ± 0.01% | 0.60 ± 0.11% | [40] |
0.1% | 0.30% | [90] | |
Carbohydrate | 30% | 50% | [90] |
Protein | 0.9% | 1.2 ± 0.1% | [40] |
8.4% | 9.5% | [90] | |
Vitamin | 6632.91 ± 18.62 mg/kg | 7618.24 ± 28.47–9,010.44 ± 30.61 mg/kg | [70] |
Pyruvate | 19.01 ± 0.3 mmol/100 g | 28.05 ± 0.3 mmol/100 g | [40] |
49.05 ± 1.2 mmol/100 g | 246.02 ± 2.4 mmol/100 g | [20] | |
Thiosufate | 6.50 ± 0.29 µM/g | 91.22 ± 0.54 µM/g | [20] |
Diseases | Products | Subjects/Cell Line/Animal Model | Outcomes | Mode of Action | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diabetes mellitus | Black garlic juice (BGJ) | Male C57BL/6J mice | SAC-enriched BGJ counteracted STZ239-induced diabetes and β-cell failure in mice. | Improved glutathione antioxidant system, increased leptin and adiponectin secretion. Inhibited hepatic gluconeogenesis and NF-κβ-mediated inflammatory signaling. | [89] |
Aged garlic | Male Sprague-Dawley rats | Ameliorated oxidative stress and other complications of diabetes. | Decreased body weight, blood glucose, serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and fructosamine. | [97] | |
Aged black garlic (ABG) | C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice | ABG improved insulin sensitivity and dyslipidemia in db/db mice. | Decreased serum glucose, total cholesterol, triglyceride and increased HDL-C levels. | [30] | |
Black garlic powder (BGP) | Male Wister rats | BGP lowered blood glucose, prevented glycogen in the liver, and improved lipid metabolism. | Lowered glycosylated Hb, and total cholesterol and increased HDL-C. BGP increased the activity of GOT, GPT, γ-GTP in serum. | [98] | |
Aged black garlic (ABG) | C57BL/KsL-db/db mice | ABG prevented diabetic complications through antioxidant activity. | Decreased TBARS levels, elevated the activities of SOD, GSH-Px, and CAT. | [99] | |
Aged garlic (AG) and S-allyl cysteine (SAC) | BSA or lysozyme | AG + SAC prevented the formation of advanced glycation end products. | [107] | ||
Aged garlic (AG) | Sprague-Dawley rats | AG exhibited ameliorative action on indicators of diabetes. | Decreased blood glucose, GHb, and lipid peroxidation. Markedly increased serum insulin, serum triglyceride elevation, and total cholesterol. | [96] | |
Obesity | Aged garlic (AG) | 51 healthy adults with obesity Study period: 6 weeks | AG prevented the development of chronic diseases associated with low-grade inflammation. | Decreased TNF-α, IL-6, blood LDL levels. | [104] |
Fermented garlic by lactic acid bacteria (FBLA) | Male C57BL/6J mice | FBLA ameliorated diet-induced obesity by inhibiting adipose tissue hypertrophy by suppressing adipogenesis. | Reduced body weight, TG, TC, retroperitoneal, epididymal, and mesenteric adipose tissue mass. Downregulated mRNA protein expression of PPARγ, C/EBPα, and lipogenic proteins, including SREBP-1c, FAS, and SCD-1. | [102] | |
Aged garlic | Male Sprague-Dawley rats | Modified the adipose weight and improved the oxidative stress. | Decreased Body weight gain, visceral, epididymal fat, and TBARS levels. | [101] | |
Black garlic | Male Wister rats | Ameliorated diet-induced obesity via regulating adipogenesis, adipokine biosynthesis, and lipolysis. | Upregulated AMPK, FOXO1, Sirt1, ATGL, HSL, perilipin, ACO, CPT-1, UCP1, adiponectin, and PPAR α. Downregulated CD36, SREBP-1c, ACC, FAS, and SCD1. | [105] | |
Aged garlic | Sprague Dawley rats | Exhibited anti-obesity, cholesterol-lowering, and anti-inflammatory effects. | Reduced body weight, visceral fat, liver weight, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, and C-reactive protein. | [103] | |
Aged black garlic | Male Sprague-Dawley rats | Improved the body weight gain and dyslipidemia through the suppression of body fat and alteration in lipid profiles and antioxidant defense system. | Decreased the body weight, adipose tissue weight, TC, TG, and increased oxidized GSH and LPO in the serum. | [29] | |
Black garlic (BG) | Male Wister rats | BG ameliorated obesity induced by a HFD in rats. | Decreased body weight, tissue weight of liver, epididymal fat, peritoneal fat, serum triglycerides, hepatic lipid profile, GSSG, and enhanced TEAC, GSH, GRd, and GPx. | [25] | |
Aged black garlic | 3T3-L1 preadipocytes | Exhibited anti-lipogenic and lipolytic effects. | Reduced protein expression of PPARγ, HSL, and Ser-pHSL levels. | [106] |
Diseases | Products | Subjects/Cell Line/Animal Model | Outcomes | Mode of Action | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nephrotoxicity | Aged garlic (AG) | Male Wister rats | AG prevented gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity. | Decreased the oxidative stress and preserved the activities of Mn-SOD, GPx, and GR | [108] |
Diabetic nephropathy (DNP) | Aged garlic (AG) | Albino Wistar rats | AG significantly decreased albumin levels in urine, blood urea nitrogen contents, and increased urine urea nitrogen contents. | The protective effect of AG on DNP due to its anti-glycation, hypolipidemic effects. | [109] |
Kidney damage | Aged garlic (AG) | Albino Wistar rats | AG rescued ethephon-induced kidney damage. | Activation of Nrf2 and inhibition of inflammation and apoptotic response. | [110] |
Kidney injury | Aged black garlic (ABG) | Male Sprague-Dawley rats | ABG ameliorated colistin-induced acute kidney injury in rats. | Reduced the levels of oxidative stress biomarkers such as 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine and malondialdehyde. Lowered the levels of NF-κβ, inducible NO synthase, COX-2, and TGF-β1, and also restored SOD, CAT, and GSH levels. | [111] |
Diseases | Products | Subjects/Cell Line/Animal Model | Outcomes | Mode of Action | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liver | Aged garlic | C57BL/6 mice | Modulation of glycometabolism, lipometabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation. | ALT, AST, TC, LDL-C, MDA | [114] | |
Black garlic (BG) | Wister rats | BG protected against oxidative damage caused by CCl4 -induced liver injury. | SOD, GSH-Px | [112] | ||
ALT, AST, LDH, | ||||||
and ALP | ||||||
Lactic acid- fermented garlic | Wister rats | Protected against oxidative liver injury. | ALP, AST, and ALT | [115] | ||
ATP depletion | ||||||
TNF-α, IL-1β | ||||||
Apoptosis | ||||||
(BCL-2, Bax, Cascape-3) | ||||||
Fermented black garlic | C57BL/6J mice | Improved the effects on fatty liver. | AST, ALT | [26] | ||
Total cholesterol, | ||||||
LDL/V-LDL-cholesterol, | ||||||
triglyceride contents | ||||||
Black garlic | ICR mice | Inhibited CCl4-induced hepatic injury by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and inflammation. | ALT, AST, ALP, and MDA TNF-α and IL-1β SOD, GSH-Px, GSH-Rd | [28] | ||
Aged black garlic | Sprague-Dawley rats | Exhibited protective effects against chronic alcohol-induced liver damage. | AST, ALT, ALP, | [113] | ||
and LDH | ||||||
GSH-Px, GR, and CAT | ||||||
Aged black garlic | Sprague- Dawley rats | Showed hepatoprotective effects against liver injury. | AST, and ALT No effects on ALP. | [27] | ||
Inflammatory | Aged black garlic | RAW 264.7 cells | Suppressed the expression of classical mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) (ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK) in LPS-stimulated macrophage cells. | NO, | [22] | |
prostaglandin E2 | ||||||
IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β | ||||||
iNOS, COX-2 | ||||||
Aged black garlic | U-937 cells | Inhibited expression of COX-2 and production of prostaglandin E2. | Inactivation of NF-κβ. | [116] | ||
Aged black garlic | HES cells | Reduced cell proliferation and attenuated the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1. | Inhibition of the ERK, JNK signaling pathways, ROS formation, NF-κβ, and AP-1 transcription factors. | [119] | ||
Aged black garlic | RAW 264.7 macrophages | Exerted anti-inflammatory effects. | NO, TNF-α, | [120] | ||
prostaglandin E2 | ||||||
Fermented black garlic | RAW 264.7 cells | Exhibited anti-inflammatory effects. | NO, TNF-α, | [21] | ||
prostaglandin E2 | ||||||
IL-1β, IL-6 | ||||||
5-HNF | RAW 264.7 cells | Exerted anti-inflammatory effects. | Inhibition of MAPK, NF-κβ and Akt/mTOR pathways. | [118] | ||
5-HNF | HUVE cells | Prevented TNF-α-induced monocytic cell adhesion to HUVE cells. | Suppressed vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression, reactive oxygen species generation and NF-κβ activation. | [117] | ||
Gastro-intestinal motility | Black garlic | Sprague–Dawley rats | Effectively promoted gastrointestinal motility and defection. | Stimulated gastrointestinal peristalsis, enhanced gastrointestinal tract emptying, and promoted defecation. | [121] | |
Laxative effects | Mixed black garlic beverage | BALB/c mice | Exhibited an obvious laxative effect, which improved the intestinal flora of mice. | Showed a relatively high ink-propelling rate, increased defection time, E. coli and Enterococci. | [122] | |
Gastroesopha-geal reflux disease | Black garlic | Sprague- Dawley rats | Showed protective effect on reflux esophagitis. | SOD, CAT TNF-α, IL-6 | [123] | |
Gastric ulcer | Aged garlic | Male Wistar rats | Prevented the indomethacin-induced ulcer. | Reduced oxidative stress. Increased gastric levels of PGE2, GSH, and NO. | [124] | |
Gastric damage | Aged garlic | Male albino rats | Heal the gastric mucosal injury induced by indomethacin. | MDA, MPO tGSH, SOD, CAT | [125] | |
Intestinal damage | Aged garlic | Male Wistar albino rats | Reduced Intestinal damaged induced by anti- tumor drug methotrexate in the small intestine. | Aged garlic halted the MDA increase in tissue and plasma lactate elevations. Thus, protected intestinal damage by preserving cellular integrity. | [126] |
Diseases | Products | Subjects/Cell Line/Animal Model | Outcomes | Mode of Action | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Platelet Aggregation | Aged garlic | 30 participants Study period: 12 weeks | Reduced cardiovascular risk factors | BW, BMI, TC, LDL-C, MDA, Homocysteine TG | [132] | |
Aged black garlic | 28 participants Study period: 12 weeks | Reduced atherogenic markers. | [133] | |||
HDL-C Ratio of LDL-C/apo-B | ||||||
Aged garlic (AG) | 34 participants Study period: 44 weeks | AG exerted selective inhibition on platelet aggregation and adhesion, platelet functions. | [134] | |||
Aged garlic (AG) | 23 participants Study period: 13 weeks | AG substantially suppressed the total percentage and initial platelet aggregation rate. | [135] | |||
Aged garlic (AG) | 43 participants Study period: 24 weeks | AG increased plasma adiponectin levels. | [136] | |||
Aged garlic (AG) | 31 participants Study period: 12 months | AG lowered IL-6 in females with a low-risk profile of the cardiovascular disease. | [137] | |||
Aged garlic (AG) | Male Wistar rats | Suppressed the platelet aggregation by changing the functional property of the platelets. | Extracellular ATP Extra- and intracellular TXB2 Suppressed the phosphorylation of collagen-induced ERK, p38, and JNK. | [129] | ||
Fermented garlic | Male Sprague-Dawley rats | Ameliorated hypercholesterolemia and inhibited platelet activation. | [131] | |||
TG, SERBP-2, ACAT-2, HMG-CoA | ||||||
Fermented garlic (FG) | Male Sprague-Dawley rats | FG significantly inhibited platelet aggregation and granule secretion in hypercholesterolemic rats. | Inhibited collagen and ADP-induced platelet aggregation and ATP release. Downregulated the expression of SERBP, ACAT-2, and HMG-CoA. | [130] | ||
Arterial Hypertension | Aged garlic (AG) | 88 patients with uncontrolled arterial hypertension. Study period: 12 weeks | Reduced mean blood pressure along with arterial stiffness, mean arterial pressure, central blood pressure, central pulse pressure, pulse-wave velocity, and augmentation pressure. | [140] | ||
Aged garlic (AG) | 49 participants with uncontrolled arterial hypertension. Study period: 12 weeks | AG was effective in reducing blood pressure and had the potential to improve inflammation, arterial stiffness, and gut microbial profile. | [141] | |||
Aged garlic | 9 patients Study period: 12 weeks | Mean systolic blood pressure was significantly reduced. | [155] | |||
Aged garlic | 50 patients Study period: 12 weeks | Systolic blood pressure was reduced on an average of 10.2 ± 4.3 mm Hg. | [142] | |||
Hypertension related to RAS | Allyl methyl Sulfide (AMS) and diallyl sulfide (DAS) | Male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) | AMS and DAS inhibited aortic smooth muscle cell angiotensin II-stimulated cell-cycle progression and migration. | The outcome was probably mediated via upregulation of the growth suppressor p27 and the attenuation of ERK 1/2 phosphorilation. | [143] | |
Black garlic (BG) | Male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) | BG exerted a potential antihypertensive effect through OFRs in the plasma and PVN of SHRs. | Declined high blood pressure via abolishing the potentiation of angiotensin II and CSAR. | [147] | ||
Black garlic (BG) | Rabbit lung ACE | BG was the most active in ACE inhibition with the lowest IC50 value (0.04 mg/mL). | Amadori compounds (Fru-Arg and Fru-Met) were probably attributed to ACE inhibitory activity. | [144] | ||
Black garlic | ACE inhibitory effects of the black garlic extract were greater (88.8%) than normal garlic extract (52.7%) | [145] | ||||
Atherosclerosis | Aged garlic (AG) | 104 patients Study period: 12 months | AG suppressed the atherosclerosis progression. | Inhibited CAC progression, lowered the levels of IL-6, glucose, and blood pressure. | [151] | |
Aged garlic (AG) and coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) | 65 patients Study period: 12 months | AG + CoQ10 reduced the progression of coronary atherosclerosis. | Lowered CAC progression and CRP levels. | [152] | ||
Aged garlic | 60 patients Study period: 12 months | Reduced the progression rate of adipose tissue volumes related to CAC. | Decreased the levels of EAT, PAT, PaAT, and SAT. | [154] | ||
Aged garlic supplemented with B vitamins, folic acid, and L-arginine | 65 patients Study period: 12 months | Improved oxidative biomarkers, vascular function, and reduced progression of atherosclerosis. | Lowered CAC progression. Decreased TG, LDL-C, homocysteine, IgG and IgM autoantibodies to MDA-LDL and apoB-immune complexes. Increased HDL, OxPL/apoB, and LP. | [153] | ||
Aged garlic (AG) | ApoE-KO mice | AG suppressed the development of atherosclerosis. | Suppressed the increase in serum concentrations of TC, TG and reduced the relative abundance of CD11b+ cells. | [149] | ||
Aged garlic (AG) | New Zealand white rabbit | AG protected the onset of atherosclerosis. | Reduced fatty streak development, vessel wall cholesterol accumulation, and the development of fibro-fatty plaques. | [150] |
Diseases | Products | Subjects/Cell Line/Animal Model | Outcomes | Mode of Action | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alzheimer’s | Aged garlic (AG) | Transgenic model Tg2576 | AG reduced cerebral plaques, detergent soluble and detergent resistant (fibrillar) Aβ-species with concomitantly increased α-cleaved sAPPα, reduced inflammation and conformational change in tau. | The observed change in tau phosphorylation appears to involve GSK-3β. | [156] |
Aged garlic (AG) | PC12 cell ICR mice | AG ameliorated against Aβ-induced neurotoxicity and cognitive impairment. | AG showed ABTS radical scavenging activity, MDA inhibitory effect and reduced intracellular ROS accumulation. | [157] | |
Aged garlic (AG) | Male Wistar rat | AG ameliorated the cognitive dysfunction in Aβ-induced neurotoxicity rats. | SOD, GPx MDA levels | [158] | |
Aged garlic (AG) and Fru-Arg | Murine BV-2 microglial cell | AG and Fru-Arg attenuated neuroinflammatory responses. | Suppressed the production of NO. Regulated the expression of multiple protein targets associated with oxidative stress. | [161] | |
Aged garlic (AG) | Male Wistar rats | AG significantly improved the working memory and tended to improve the reference memory in cognitively impaired rats. | Modified the cholinergic neurons, VGLUT1, and GAD in the hippocampus of Aβ-induced rats. | [159] | |
Aged garlic (AG) and S-allyl-L- cysteine (SAC) | PC12 cells, Tg2576 transgenic mice | Both AG and SAC treatment protected neuronal cells from ROS-mediated oxidative insults and preserved the levels of pre-synaptic protein such as SNAP25. | [160] | ||
Parkinson’s | S-allyl-L-cysteine (SAC) | C57BL/6J mice | SAC protected against oxidative stress in 1-methyl-4 phenylpyridinium-induced parkinsonism in mice. | Ameliorated MPP+-induced lipid peroxidation, ROS production, loss of dopamine in striatum, and improved locomotion deficits. | [162] |
Cerebral ischemia | S-allyl-L- cysteine (SAC) | Male Wistar rats | SAC mitigated oxidative damage and improved neurologic deficit. | Reduced ischemic lesion volume, suppressed neuronal loss, and inhibited glial fibrillary acidic protein and inducible nitric oxide expression. | [163] |
Aged garlic (AG) and S-allyl-L- cysteine (SAC) | Male Wistar rats | Both AG and SAC treatment induced neuroprotection. | Increased GLUT3 and GCLC mRNA expression levels. | [167] | |
S-allyl-L-cysteine (SAC) | Male Wistar rats | SAC diminished cerebral ischemia-induced mitochondrial dysfunctions in hippocampus. | Restored GSH and G6-PD. Decreased LPO, PC, and H2O2 content as well as the brain edema. | [165] | |
Aged garlic (AG) | Male Wistar rats | AG attenuated the cerebral ischemia-induced inflammation. | Attenuated the increase in the levels of 8-OHdG, TNF-α, and COX-2 protein. | [166] | |
Aged garlic (AG) | Male Wistar rats | AG protected against ischemia-induced brain damage. | Decreased mRNA expression of NMDA receptor subunits after ischemia. Prevented ischemia-induced reduction in mitochondrial potential and in ATP synthesis. | [164] |
Diseases | Products | Subjects/Cell Line/Animal Model | Outcomes | Mode of Action | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Colon cancer | Aged black garlic (ABG) | HT29 cell | ABG inhibited colon cancer cell growth | ABG reduced HT29 cell growth and promoted apoptosis by inhibiting the PI3KAkt pathway. | [32] |
Aged garlic (AG) | DLD-1 cell and F344 rats | AG inhibited 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon tumor development. | AG delayed cell cycle progression by downregulating cyclin B1 and cdk1 expression via inactivation of NF-κB but did not induce apoptosis. | [170] | |
Prostate cancer | SAMC | LNCaP cell, PC-3, DU 145 cells | SAMC showed positive effects against prostate cancer cells. | Rescued GSH deficits, altered prostate biomarker expression and utilized testosterone, restored the expression of E-cadherin. | [173,174,175,176,177,178] |
Gastric cancer | Aged black garlic (ABG) | AGS cells | ABG treatment inhibited tumor metastasis and invasion. | ABG increased the tightness of tight junction. Inhibited the activities of MMP-2 and -9 in AGS cells. Repressed the levels of claudin proteins. | [171] |
Aged black garlic (ABG) | SGC-7901 cells | ABG induced inhibition of gastric cancer cell growth. | Increased the superoxide dismutases, glutathione peroxidase, interleukin-2, and indices of spleen and thymus in Kunming mice. | [33] | |
Breast cancer | Aged garlic (AG) | MCF-7 | Exhibited a chemosensitizing effect. | Induction of apoptosis, enhanced intracellular DOX accumulation, inhibition of P-gp activity. | [58] |
Liver cancer | SAMC | HepG2 cells | SAMC promoted MAPK inhibitor-induced apoptosis by activating the TGF-β signaling pathway. | Activated TGF-β1, TβRII, psmad2/3, smad4 and smad7 signaling. | [179] |
Bladder cancer | SAMC | MGH-U1 cells | SAMC inhibited the survival, invasion, and migration of bladder cancer cells. | Inactivated Id-1 pathway. | [180] |
Thyroid cancer | SAMC | HPACC-8305C | SAMC inhibited the growth of HPACC-8305C cells. | Induction of apoptotic cell death. Inhibited telomerase activity. | [168] |
Lung cancer | Black garlic | Lewis cells | Inhibited the growth of lung cancer cells. | Affected the expression of Bax and BCL-2 | [169] |
Ovarian cancer | SAMC | HO8910, HO8910PM, and SKOV3 | SAMC suppressed both the proliferation and distant metastasis of epithelial ovarian cancers cells. | Down-regulated the survivin gene in HO8910PM cells with small interference RNA (siRNA). Decreased invasiveness of tumor cells. | [181] |
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Ahmed, T.; Wang, C.-K. Black Garlic and Its Bioactive Compounds on Human Health Diseases: A Review. Molecules 2021, 26, 5028. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26165028
Ahmed T, Wang C-K. Black Garlic and Its Bioactive Compounds on Human Health Diseases: A Review. Molecules. 2021; 26(16):5028. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26165028
Chicago/Turabian StyleAhmed, Tanvir, and Chin-Kun Wang. 2021. "Black Garlic and Its Bioactive Compounds on Human Health Diseases: A Review" Molecules 26, no. 16: 5028. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26165028