Application of the 3Rs to Promote the Welfare of Animals Used in Scientific Research and Testing

Abstract submission deadline

20 June 2025

Manuscript submission deadline

20 September 2025

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Topic Information

Dear Colleagues,

Effective application of the principles of the 3Rs is critical to the successful use of research animals. Studies should be conducted in as refined a manner as possible while reducing the required numbers as much as possible, or Replacing animal use either entirely or partially, such as by using species that are believed either to be non-sentient or to have low sentience capacity. The importance of this topic cannot be overemphasized, as applying the 3Rs provides the principal framework by which research and testing is conducted in an ethically sound manner. Indeed, their application is able to provide high-quality, potentially more reproducible data due to the avoidance of unnecessary suffering. Submissions from any research discipline are invited. Researchers may use any species in which either positive or negative findings further knowledge on refinement, on how to Reduce animal numbers using statistical methods or improved study designs, and ultimately, on how to Replace the use of animals in scientific testing and research. Submissions describing studies using new and/or advanced non-invasive procedures are particularly welcome.

Dr. Johnny Roughan
Dr. Laura Calvillo
Topic Editors

Keywords

Participating Journals

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Animals animals	2.7	4.9	2011	16.1 Days	CHF 2400	Submit
Fishes fishes	2.1	1.9	2016	17.4 Days	CHF 2600	Submit
Veterinary Sciences vetsci	2.0	2.9	2014	21.2 Days	CHF 2100	Submit

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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All Animals Fishes Veterinary Sciences

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13 pages, 5138 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Medical Imaging Quality Related to Embalming Solutions in Canine Cadavers

by Ahsa Oh, Sung-Min Nam, Sang-Soep Nahm, Ki-Dong Eom and Woosuk Kim

Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(2), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12020188 - 19 Feb 2025

Viewed by 528

Abstract

(1) Background: This study evaluated the quality of medical imaging acquired using radiography, ultrasonography, and computed tomography (CT) in canine cadavers prepared with formalin solution, Thiel solution (TS), and saturated salt solution (SS). Additionally, the duration whereby image quality could be properly reproduced [...] Read more.

(1) Background: This study evaluated the quality of medical imaging acquired using radiography, ultrasonography, and computed tomography (CT) in canine cadavers prepared with formalin solution, Thiel solution (TS), and saturated salt solution (SS). Additionally, the duration whereby image quality could be properly reproduced was investigated. (2) Methods: Nine dog cadavers, divided into three groups per embalming solution, were imaged pre- and post-embalming at 6 and 12 weeks using three different imaging modalities. Image quality was qualitatively scored based on human medicine guidelines criteria. The score was assigned as follows: “0 = not invisible, 1 = poorly invisible, 2 = adequately reproduced, 3 = very well reproduced”. (3) Results: On plain radiography, most scores were > 1.34, although the quality of all embalming solutions in thoracic and abdominal images decreased over time. Using ultrasound to image the liver, spleen, and kidney, the SS group was evaluated as poorly visible and scored < 0.82 at 6 and 12 weeks. CT images showed a tendency to degrade over time, but all solution groups had properly implemented images and scored > 1.62. (4) Conclusions: Regarding image quality and ease of application, TS is considered the most suitable embalming solution for medical imaging acquisition and is usable over time in all imaging modalities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Application of the 3Rs to Promote the Welfare of Animals Used in Scientific Research and Testing)

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9 pages, 872 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Rearing in a Physically Enriched Environment Affects Shoaling and Stress Responses of Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Exposed to Novel Conditions

by Valentina Gazzano, Martina Di Filippo, Rosario Licitra, Asahi Ogi, Baldassare Fronte, Maria Claudia Curadi and Angelo Gazzano

Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12010038 - 9 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 942

Abstract

The impact of enrichment on stress reduction in zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to a novel environment was assessed. Four control shoals (CTRL) and five treated shoals (TRT), each with eight fish, were observed; in TRT tanks, a PVC pipe was included [...] Read more.

The impact of enrichment on stress reduction in zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to a novel environment was assessed. Four control shoals (CTRL) and five treated shoals (TRT), each with eight fish, were observed; in TRT tanks, a PVC pipe was included (three-way tube, 11.7 × 4 cm) as enrichment for 90 days. Subsequently, fish were moved to a new tank for a shoaling test, and behavior was evaluated over periods of 0′–5′ and 5′–10′. Cortisol dissolved in water was measured before and after the test. No differences were found between the two groups in distance moved, swimming speed, or shoal acceleration. Both groups reduced interindividual distance in the second phase of the test (CTRL: t = 8.977, p ≤ 0.0001; TRT: t = 8.247, p ≤ 0.0001), though TRT fish maintained greater spacing (t = 2.292, p ≤ 0.05). TRT fish spent more time without contact during both phases (first: t = 2.645, p ≤ 0.05; second: t = 3.134, p ≤ 0.01), while CTRL fish reduced this time in the second phase (t = 2.991, p ≤ 0.05). Cortisol rose significantly in CTRL after the test (t = 2.452, p ≤ 0.05) but not in TRT fish. These results suggest that environmental enrichment mitigates stress, as seen by reduced cohesiveness and cortisol in TRT fish. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Application of the 3Rs to Promote the Welfare of Animals Used in Scientific Research and Testing)

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9 pages, 337 KiB  

Open AccessCommentary

Stepwise Imperatives for Improving the Protection of Animals in Research and Education in Canada

by Kyrstin Lavelle, Karim Fouad and Judy Illes

Animals 2024, 14(19), 2755; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14192755 - 24 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1662

Abstract

In this paper, we review the standard-setting tools of different levels of government in Canada for overseeing the care of animals used in science against a landscape of other international efforts. We find regulatory inconsistencies, argue that the related shortcomings are detrimental to [...] Read more.

In this paper, we review the standard-setting tools of different levels of government in Canada for overseeing the care of animals used in science against a landscape of other international efforts. We find regulatory inconsistencies, argue that the related shortcomings are detrimental to the level of care afforded to animals, and offer suggestions for a centralized and proactive approach that could close the existing gaps. Given the resources, cost, and time it would take to transform the current system into a single cohesive one, the proposed approach is a stepwise one, and begins with the addition of two new Rs—Reflection and Responsiveness—to the existing 3Rs framework: Replacement, Refinement, and Reduction. Reflection emphasizes more continuous and specific attention to progress in the research pathway as it applies to animals than is currently required by institutional review and reporting; Responsiveness speaks to the immediate action that researchers can take responsively to that ongoing evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Application of the 3Rs to Promote the Welfare of Animals Used in Scientific Research and Testing)

15 pages, 267 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Animal Research Regulation: Improving Decision-Making and Adopting a Transparent System to Address Concerns around Approval Rate of Experiments

by David Mawufemor Azilagbetor, David Shaw and Bernice Simone Elger

Animals 2024, 14(6), 846; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14060846 - 9 Mar 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4869

Abstract

The use of nonhuman animals in biomedical research is regulated under stringent conditions, not only in response to societal attitudes towards animal experimentation but also because ethical responsibility in scientific research requires researchers and veterinarians to be more invested and aim to improve [...] Read more.

The use of nonhuman animals in biomedical research is regulated under stringent conditions, not only in response to societal attitudes towards animal experimentation but also because ethical responsibility in scientific research requires researchers and veterinarians to be more invested and aim to improve the welfare of animals used for experiments. Analyses of animal research oversight reveal the frequent approval of experiments, and the approval of some experiments has raised and continues to raise public concerns. Societal compliance is required for a consensus-based approach to animal research policy, prompting the need to have transparent discussions about oversight and the frequency of approvals. We discuss how frequent approval may be perceived and why it seems problematic from a societal perspective: the regulatory process exists to approve only legitimate experiments. Although some experiments remain unacceptable irrespective of their harm–benefit ratios, almost all experiments are approved. We explain some possible legitimate reasons for frequent approval and how the review process could be leading to the approval of illegitimate studies. To ensure transparency and improve public trust and understanding of oversight, we propose the adoption of a platform to inform society about how unethical experiments are screened out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Application of the 3Rs to Promote the Welfare of Animals Used in Scientific Research and Testing)

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11 pages, 1175 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Reporting of 3Rs Approaches in Preclinical Animal Experimental Studies—A Nationwide Study

by Birgitte S. Kousholt, Kirstine F. Præstegaard, Jennifer C. Stone, Anders F. Thomsen, Thea T. Johansen, Merel Ritskes-Hoitinga and Gregers Wegener

Animals 2023, 13(19), 3005; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13193005 - 23 Sep 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2796

Abstract

The 3Rs aim to refine animal welfare, reduce animal numbers, and replace animal experiments. Investigations disclose that researchers are positive towards 3Rs recommendations from peers. Communication of 3Rs approaches via primary preclinical animal experimental literature may become a fast-forward extension to learn relevant [...] Read more.

The 3Rs aim to refine animal welfare, reduce animal numbers, and replace animal experiments. Investigations disclose that researchers are positive towards 3Rs recommendations from peers. Communication of 3Rs approaches via primary preclinical animal experimental literature may become a fast-forward extension to learn relevant 3Rs approaches if such are reported. This study investigates 3Rs-reporting in peer-reviewed preclinical animal research with at least one author affiliated to a Danish university. Using a systematic search and random sampling, we included 500 studies from 2009 and 2018. Reporting was low and improvement over time limited. A word search for 3R retrieved zero results in 2009 and 3.2% in 2018. Reporting on 3Rs-related sentences increased from 6.4% in 2009 to 18.4% in 2018, “reduction” increased from 2.4% to 8.0%, and “refinement” from 5.2% to 14.4%. Replacement was not reported. Reporting of the methodology was missing. For “reduction”, methodology was mentioned in one study in 2009 and 11 studies in 2018, and for “refinement” in 9 and 21, respectively. Twenty-one studies stated compliance with ARRIVE-guidelines or similar without disclosure of details. Reporting of 3Rs approaches in preclinical publications is currently insufficient to guide researchers. Other strategies, e.g., education, interdisciplinary collaboration, and 3Rs funding initiatives, are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Application of the 3Rs to Promote the Welfare of Animals Used in Scientific Research and Testing)

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