Search Results (2,020)

The Hajdúhát loess plateau in eastern Hungary has no perennial watercourse and overlies a drought-sensitive shallow aquifer, so irrigation supply security and allocation both constrain production. We coupled a dry-2018/wet-2020 MIKE Hydro River model of the East Main Canal (EMC) with a seventeen-year (2009–2025) MIKE SHE groundwater model, and a decision-support layer that couples conveyed-water allocation across sectors with a ranking of management responses. Calibration attains Moriasi Very Good bias-and-balance skill (mean |PBIAS| 1.59%/0.86%), with a head MAE of 1.431 m over 132 wells, and continuous validation reproduces measured discharge to within −7.7% bias over 2022–2025. Growing-season evapotranspiration (448 mm) exceeds precipitation (309 mm), leaving a 314 mm unsaturated-zone deficit; the dry-year canal terminus shows 34 of 92 no-flow days and a sustainability index of 0.09, against 0.34 when wet. A reconciled reach × sector balance and an isolating hydraulic test show the deficit is an allocation problem, not a conveyance limit. A Leopold/analytic-hierarchy-process ranking favors priority-ordered allocation over new capacity, and, in a two-objective time–quantity allocation, re-timing 8.57 × 10⁶ m³ of fish-pond filling into winter would remove the spring deficit without new infrastructure. Dry-year supply is thus a problem of allocation and timing as much as of capacity. Full article

To address the limited cooling range of ventilation in deep, high-temperature development headings and the lack of coordinated design between coil-based cooling and the ventilation system, this study proposes a coupled “twin-forcing–coil” cooling scheme. Building on conventional overlap (forcing–exhausting) ventilation, a rear-mounted second forcing duct is added to the conventional overlap (force–exhaust combined) auxiliary ventilation system, forming a dual-duct forcing, single-exhausting configuration—hereafter termed the “twin-forcing–single-exhausting” (TFSE) system—that provides a booster (relay) air supply to mitigate the along-path attenuation of cooling capacity and the short-circuiting of cold air; an in situ heat-exchange coil wall further provides supplementary cooling where ventilation-based temperature control weakens. Using a development heading at the 790 m level of a metal mine in Yunnan as the engineering background, a three-dimensional numerical model coupling the roadway, ventilation system, and coil wall was established and validated against nine field monitoring points, showing average relative errors of approximately 1% for temperature and 2–3% for humidity, comparable to the measurement uncertainty of the field instrumentation. Because the numerical model does not account for evaporative and condensation phase-change processes, two supplementary development headings with standing water at the face were used for validation; results showed that model error increases with water accumulation and heading length, indicating the model’s applicability is limited to conditions with intact surrounding rock and minimal seepage. Six operating cases were designed with duct placement and coil spacing as variables. Results show that single-duct ventilation cooling decays markedly beyond 30 m from the face, whereas twin-forcing booster (relay) air supply effectively extends the cooling range, reducing the 30–70 m section temperature by 2.7–2.9 K; the second duct should be positioned where the first duct’s cooling capacity begins to attenuate but is not yet depleted. Based on only two spacing configurations tested (10 m and 15 m), coil-staggered spacing showed limited effect on cooling performance under the field conditions examined; this preliminary finding requires validation across a broader range of spacings. Among the chilled-water conditions tested, an inlet temperature of 280.65 K and a flow velocity of 0.5 m/s offered a reasonable trade-off between cooling uniformity and economic efficiency. Under the boundary conditions and equipment parameters of this case, energy consumption estimates further indicate that the cooling effect per unit electricity consumption of twin-forcing ventilation is roughly 6–8 times that of coil-based cooling, primarily due to pumping losses over the ~240 m chilled-water delivery distance. This energy penalty indicates that coil-based cooling is better suited as a localized, short-distance supplementary measure rather than as a means of extending the cooling range over long distances. Full article

Organic fertilization is a key strategy for improving soil structure and fertility in China’s Vertisols, yet the trade-offs among soil quality enhancement, grain yield performance, and nutrient use efficiency under different organic amendment regimes remain insufficiently elucidated. Based on a unique 43-year field fertilization experiment, this study systematically evaluated the effects of long-term chemical fertilization (NPK) alone, low-dose (NPKLS) and high-dose straw incorporation (NPKHS), combined chemical fertilizer with cattle manure (NPKCM), and pig manure (NPKPM) fertilization on soil physical, chemical properties, crop yields and plant nutrient utilization efficiency. The results showed that NPKCM and NPKPM significantly improved soil physical properties by reducing soil bulk density, improving soil pore structure, and enhancing soil water retention capacity and saturated hydraulic conductivity. Although long-term manure application led to slight soil salt accumulation, the rate of accumulation remained substantially lower than that associated with commercial organic fertilizers and did not approach the crop salinity damage threshold, suggesting low ecological risk. Compared with NPK treatment, manure amendment effectively counteracted soil acidification induced by prolonged chemical fertilization, while also significantly increasing soil total phosphorus and available phosphorus content, and elevated the proportion of active phosphorus (PAC). The improved soil phosphorus activation capacity and comprehensive soil quality further contributed to substantial increases in wheat grain yield under NPKCM and NPKPM treatments. Despite these agronomic benefits, the additional nitrogen and phosphorus inputs from manure resulted in soil nutrient surpluses, which considerably reduced nitrogen and phosphorus partial factor productivity as well as agronomic efficiency. In contrast, straw incorporation treatments (NPKLS, NPKHS) sustained stable crop yield without notable declines in nutrient efficiency, positioning them as a greener and more sustainable approach to balancing grain production with resource use efficiency. These findings highlight the need to integrate nutrient credits from manure into fertilization program. Given the 43-year evidence, fertilization strategy should consider not only the nutrients supplied by manure but also the quantities exported through harvested products, with adjustments based on annual soil fertility analyses. Such nutrient budgeting is essential to maximize fertilizer use efficiency, prevent excessive phosphorus accumulation, and maintain balanced soil fertility over time. Full article

This study investigated whether carbohydrate source and the persistence of nutrient availability influence the life-history and reproductive performance of Trichogramma chilonis. Seven experimental treatments were evaluated: continuous supply of 20% honey–water (HWC), one-time supply of 20% honey–water with the nutrient source retained throughout the experiment (HW1C), one-time supply of 20% honey–water followed by removal of the nutrient source on Day 2 (HW1), continuous supply of 20% sucrose (SWC), one-time supply of 20% sucrose with the nutrient source retained throughout the experiment (SW1C), one-time supply of 20% sucrose followed by removal of the nutrient source on Day 2 (SW1), and a water-only control (CK). Unlike previous studies that primarily compared carbohydrate types or carbohydrate-fed and unfed parasitoids, the present study specifically assessed the importance of persistent nutrient access. Nutrient-supply treatments significantly increased adult longevity and lifetime parasitism capacity compared with the water-only control. SW1C, SWC, HWC, and HW1C showed statistically comparable longevity and lifetime parasitism capacity and performed better than treatments in which the nutrient source was removed and the water-only control. Daily parasitism was highest during the early adult period and declined with age, although nutrient-fed females maintained parasitism for a longer period. Female progeny ratio varied among experimental treatments, while offspring emergence remained high and statistically similar across the experimental treatments, ranging from approximately 85% to 89%. Overall, honey–water and sucrose diets improved the adult performance of T. chilonis without reducing offspring viability, supporting their use in mass-rearing and biological-control programs. Full article

Water-mist curtains act as thermal barriers to longitudinal smoke propagation in confined-space fires, but their downstream cooling remains difficult to predict with reduced-order models. This study develops a calibrated semi-analytical model that uses the incident temperature at the curtain’s upstream face and combines a one-dimensional droplet residence-time solution with a Stefan-flow heat-transfer reduction. A lumped closure coefficient, k = Aeq/A0, collectively accounts for the simplified initial velocity and trajectory, spray nonuniformity, ensemble shielding, representative properties, and boundary inputs. The coefficient is inferred from 5 MW FDS cases with D₃₂ = 400–700 μm and is not interpreted as breakup or coalescence, which were absent from the monodisperse simulations. Cases at 2, 4, and 6 MW provide within-domain blind tests, whereas 1, 3, and 7 MW provide supplementary assessment; the maximum reconstructed relative deviation in exit temperature is 13.4%. A 1:5 experiment supplies a cross-scale trend comparison, but its geometry differs from the full-scale FDS domain, and only the 3 MW-equivalent fire has an archived mass-loss calibration. The model is therefore limited to the present calibration domain and should not be transferred directly across geometries, nozzles, or ventilation conditions. Full article

This study presents a short-term outdoor comparison of mirror-glass and AISI 304 stainless-steel reflectors in parabolic trough collectors equipped with identical helical copper absorbers. Both configurations were operated simultaneously using the same collector geometry, fixed inclination angle, water-supply arrangement, measurement schedule, and instrumentation. Solar irradiance, inlet and outlet water temperatures, absorber temperature, and reflector temperature were recorded over three consecutive experimental days, namely 24–26 October 2025. The results were evaluated using temperature rise and time-dependent temperature output because the gravity-assisted system was not equipped with a flow meter or active flow-control device, preventing reliable calculation of useful heat gain and thermal efficiency. The descriptive results showed that the mirror-glass configuration produced a modestly higher overall temperature response and lower variation among the three daily mean values, although it did not outperform stainless steel at every measurement time or in every daily average. The observed difference is interpreted primarily in terms of the expected higher specular reflectivity and lower optical scattering of mirror glass, which can increase the solar radiation intercepted by the absorber. However, the conclusions are limited by the three-day testing period, absence of verified mass-flow data, lack of direct reflectivity measurements, and unquantified cosine losses associated with fixed operation without automatic tracking. The findings therefore provide configuration-specific guidance for reflector selection rather than a generalized ranking of collector performance. Full article

Cold-climate dwellings can face coincident electricity and domestic hot-water shortfalls in winter, when solar availability is at its lowest. This study evaluates an integrated residential system for Aomori, Japan, combining photovoltaics, evacuated-tube solar water heating, and battery storage with electrolysis, compressed-hydrogen storage, and a PEM fuel cell operated in combined-heat-and-power mode. Building on a screening-level annual-balance analysis, a coupled annual TRNSYS simulation with a 0.125 h time step resolved battery dispatch, electrolyzer part-load operation, hydrogen compression and finite storage, seasonal fuel-cell operation, and heat recovery. The results show that the principal value of seasonal hydrogen lies in improving winter supply adequacy, dispatchability, and heat recovery rather than annual conversion efficiency. Fuel-cell heat recovery increased the number of days satisfying the hot-water screening indicator—a daily mean tank temperature of at least 43 °C—from 221 to 332. A reserve-aware criterion identified a 225 W electrolyzer operating-power cap as the positive-reserve case; 205 W was near-cyclic with a negligible margin, whereas the original 475 W cap was substantially oversized. The hydrogen pathway remained markedly less efficient than direct photovoltaic and solar-thermal use, and the estimated storage hardware’s lower bound substantially exceeded the break-even capital ceiling supported by the annual operating value. Seasonal hydrogen can therefore strengthen winter energy adequacy and heat recovery but is not yet cost-effective at the single-dwelling scale under the investigated conditions. Full article

Vertical farming (VF) offers a smart way to grow crops in stacked layers inside controlled indoor environments. By doing so, it uses far less land and water than traditional open-field agriculture, making it a promising solution for cities with limited space and resources. In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies have begun to transform vertical farming. These tools are moving the industry away from rigid, rule-based systems toward more flexible, data-driven operations that can adapt in real time. This paper presents a systematic review of 208 peer-reviewed studies from 2015 to 2025. It explores how AI, ML, and IoT are applied across the VF ecosystem, focusing on key areas such as computer vision for disease detection, crop growth and yield prediction, smart climate control, and precision nutrient and irrigation management. This review examines the performance of different algorithms, including Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Random Forest, XGBoost, and LSTMs across hydroponic, aeroponic, and aquaponic systems. The review also covers IoT setups with multi-sensor networks, edge-cloud computing, and automated control systems. Commercial farms have shown real gains in resource efficiency and shorter supply chains. However, challenges remain: high energy use (especially from LED lighting, which makes up 40–60% of costs), expensive setup, scattered datasets, and limited real-world testing. Many high-accuracy claims (>95%) come from lab conditions and need better validation in actual farms. Overall, AI-powered vertical farming has strong potential to support resilient urban food systems. Future work should focus on lightweight edge AI models, improved data standards, explainable AI, and robust life cycle assessments to ensure the benefits outweigh the environmental and economic costs. Full article

Estimating transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity is crucial for groundwater resource assessment, flow modeling, pollution remediation, and sustainability studies. In the volcanic highlands of Ethiopia, millions rely on hand-dug wells and springs for drinking and irrigation, yet the hydraulic properties of these shallow aquifers remain largely uncharacterized. This study provides the first comprehensive estimation of transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity for the shallow groundwater aquifers in the Lake Tana Basin through integrated analyses of pumping and slug tests. The effective dataset comprised 31 tests, unevenly distributed among four aquifer types: eight in Quaternary basalt, 13 in weathered basalt regolith, seven in pyroclastic deposits, and three in alluvio-lacustrine sediments. Time-series groundwater level data were additionally used to characterize seasonal recharge responses and recession behaviors. Quaternary basalt aquifers showed high transmissivity values of 117–1064 m²/d, with a geometric mean of 235 m²/d, reflecting the influence of open and hydraulically connected fractures. Weathered basalt regolith aquifers had transmissivity values of 0.27–71 m²/d, with a geometric mean of 3.09 m²/d, whereas pyroclastic aquifers ranged from 0.17 to 11 m²/d, with a geometric mean of 0.96 m²/d. The alluvio-lacustrine aquifers ranged from 1.68 to 173 m/d, with a geometric mean of 8.56 m²/d; however, this estimate should be interpreted cautiously because it is based on only three tests. This study reveals strong heterogeneity within and across aquifers. Pumping tests were generally more applicable to the relatively transmissive Quaternary basalt aquifers, whereas slug tests provided a practical approach for characterizing shallow weathered regolith, pyroclastic, and alluvio-lacustrine aquifers. Seasonal groundwater level patterns varied with geology and topographic position: aquifers on slopes and plateaus generally showed rapid recharge and recession responses, whereas those at foothills and floodplains exhibited more sustained groundwater levels, probably because of lateral inflow and interactions with river water. The findings provide preliminary hydraulic-property ranges for groundwater assessment and indicate that fractured Quaternary basalt aquifers may represent promising targets for water-supply development. Full article

Frozen seafood plays an important role in the global food supply, but maintaining its quality during frozen storage and cold-chain distribution remains a significant challenge. Although freezing effectively slows microbial growth and enzymatic activity, it cannot completely prevent quality deterioration. During frozen storage, seafood undergoes a series of interconnected physicochemical changes, including ice crystal growth, protein denaturation and oxidation, lipid oxidation, water redistribution, and texture deterioration. These changes gradually reduce sensory quality, nutritional value, and overall commercial acceptability. Conventional quality assessment methods, including destructive laboratory analyses and sensory evaluation, are still widely used. However, they are often labor-intensive, time-consuming, and unsuitable for rapid or real-time monitoring in modern cold-chain systems. As a result, increasing attention has been given to non-destructive sensing technologies that can evaluate seafood quality quickly and objectively. This review summarizes the major mechanisms responsible for quality deterioration in frozen seafood, together with recent advances in sensing technologies used to monitor these changes. The sensing approaches discussed include near-infrared (NIR) and Raman spectroscopy, hyperspectral and fluorescence imaging, low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR), electronic nose (E-nose), electronic tongue (E-tongue), colorimetric sensor arrays (CSAs), and biosensors. This review also discusses the growing role of artificial intelligence in frozen seafood quality assessment, including chemometrics, machine learning, deep learning, and multi-sensor data fusion. Particular attention is given to their applications in quality prediction, industrial implementation, and decision support. Finally, current challenges and future research needs are highlighted, with emphasis on the development of interpretable, transferable, and real-time monitoring systems that can support more reliable quality assurance throughout the frozen seafood supply chain. Full article

Rural houses in cold regions of China usually have high energy demands, particularly for space heating and domestic hot water. Passive design can reduce building energy demand, but additional renewable energy systems are still needed to improve on-site energy supply. This study evaluates the performance and limitations of photovoltaic (PV) and solar water heating (SWH) systems in a passive-designed rural house in Xi’an, China. Hourly simulations were conducted for PV-only and PV–battery configurations with different south-facing roof coverage ratios and battery capacities, together with an evacuated-tube SWH system. The results show that PV electricity supply was limited by the mismatch between household electricity demand and PV generation. Household demand mainly occurred in the morning and evening, whereas PV generation was concentrated around noon. The 13 m² PV case achieved approximately 11% electricity supply capacity with a utilization ratio of 62%, while increasing the PV area to 50 m² raised the supply capacity to only 15% and reduced the utilization ratio to 23%. With battery storage, the largest PV–battery configuration supplied 48% of annual household electricity demand, while the overall electricity utilization ratio was 73%, indicating a trade-off between household electricity self-supply and system utilization. The SWH system showed better applicability for domestic hot water supply, with an annual average hot water supply capacity of 60.2% and an average device efficiency of 43.5%, but its winter performance remained weak. These results indicate that PV and SWH are useful but insufficient solar energy strategies for passive-designed rural houses. PV is mainly constrained by daily time mismatch, while SWH is mainly constrained by seasonal climate variation. Full article

To overcome the limitations of insufficient driving force in traditional microbial desalination batteries, this paper constructs a microbial anode-membrane capacitive deionization (B-MCDI) coupling system. For the first time, direct coupling between extracellular electron transfer in Shewanella oneidensis and double-layer adsorption at the MCDI cathode is achieved at the circuit and material levels, realizing self-driven, low-energy desalination. High-specific-surface-area carbon felt is used as the anode, and a stable electrogenic biomembrane (output voltage >400 mV) is formed after directional domestication with Shewanella oneidensis MR-1. Activated carbon is used as the cathode to construct the MCDI electrode. In the three-chamber reactor, the desalination chambers are separated by cation and anion exchange membranes. Under the drive of the bioelectric field, Na⁺ and Cl⁻ selectively permeate into the cathode and anode chambers, respectively, effectively suppressing the co-ion effect. Under optimal operating conditions (external resistance 1000 Ω, initial NaCl concentration 2.0 g/L), the system achieved a cumulative desalination rate of 85.1% after 12 h of operation, with a salt adsorption capacity of 162.1 mg/g, an average desalination rate of 13.51 mg/(g·h), and an energy consumption of only 0.58 kWh/m³. This demonstrates that bioelectric energy can effectively provide targeted power to drive capacitive adsorption and desalination. Under initial NaCl concentrations of 1.0 g/L and 3.0 g/L, the highest desalination rates reached 78% and 68%, respectively. The maximum instantaneous desalination rate occurred within 0.5–1.0 h (64 mg/h under 2.0 g/L conditions), exhibiting a three-stage kinetic characteristic of “fast-slow-equilibrium”. The energy consumption in this study was only 0.51 kWh/m³, further demonstrating the high energy efficiency of bioelectrically coupled MCDI in low-salinity treatment areas. Therefore, this B-MCDI can serve as a theoretically feasible proof-of-concept technology for desalination of brackish water that meets the requirements of self-driven, low-energy consumption, and has promising applications in decentralized water supply systems in areas with limited energy supply or no available electricity. Full article

The spring floods that occurred in 2024 in western and northern Kazakhstan caused extensive damage. Our understanding of runoff formation processes under frozen-soil conditions remains limited. In this study, we apply a coupled hydrothermal model as a case study to explicitly simulate vertical heat and water transport, phase transitions, snow dynamics, and reduced infiltration capacity due to cryogenic pore blockage (ice-filled pores). The model is based on regular meteorological data from 65 stations in five regions covering the full hydrological cycle (August–May) of 2021 and 2024. A multilevel diagnostic check showed that soil temperature is reproduced with a median $R^2$ of 0.962 and NSE of 0.888, the frozen/thawed surface condition corresponds to WMO (World Meteorological Organization) standards on approximately 91% of days, and water balance agreement reaches 86.2% (56 out of 65 stations). The model reflects the regional variability of the 2024 flood. In the northern regions (Kostanay, North Kazakhstan), snowfall was above average, and modeled runoff increased compared to 2021 (for example, at the Sergeevka station, it increased by a factor of four). In the western regions, the trends were mixed: the strongest relative increase in runoff was recorded in the Atyrau region (+119%), whilst in the West Kazakhstan region, the increase was more modest (+19%), and in the Aktobe region, runoff increased by 60%. The key mechanism—the time lag between rapid snowmelt and delayed soil thaw—is clearly evident: peaks in snowmelt occur when the soil remains frozen, infiltration capacity decreases, and the runoff potential index (RPI) exceeds 1 for extended periods. Although the model does not simulate the river channel, its ability to diagnose runoff generation conditions at the slope scale offers a diagnostic framework for identifying runoff-conducive conditions in regions with limited data, rather than a physically validated tool for flood-prone area identification. The results show that the 2024 flood period was characterized by abnormally high water inflow and hydrothermal conditions consistent with a temporal mismatch between water supply and the recovery of soil infiltration capacity. Because the RPI is a diagnostic indicator constructed from water input and infiltration capacity, these results should be interpreted as evidence of conditions conducive to runoff generation rather than as an independent causal verification of the flood mechanism. Full article

Quantifying the soil moisture (SM) response to precipitation is pivotal for predicting hydrologic resilience and ecosystem stability in fragile cold regions. This is true in alpine permafrost environments characterized by variable precipitation phases and strong seasonal freeze–thaw dynamics. However, critical knowledge gaps persist due to the scarcity of high-resolution, multi-layer in situ observations in these remote areas. Using hourly data from three sites in the Tanggula Mountains (2020–2024), this study employs an event-based analytical framework combining logistic regression and linear regression to quantify multi-layer (10–100 cm) SM responses to rain, snow, and mixed-phase precipitation across seasons. Core findings indicate the following: (1) Precipitation thresholds with 80% probability of triggering SM responses rise sharply with depth during the cold period (10 cm: 1–11 mm; 50–100 cm: often >15 mm or unreachable) but increase gradually in the warm period (10 cm: 0.4–5 mm; 50 cm: <15 mm). Mixed-phase precipitation refers to the lowest amount of precipitation (0.4–2.5 mm at 10 cm), followed by rain (1–11 mm) and snow (2–5 mm). (2) Warm-period regression slopes are consistently steeper than cold-period slopes (at 10 cm, 0.0024 vs. 0.0010 for rainfall). Mixed-phase precipitation yields the steepest slopes, approximately 50% higher than rainfall at 10 cm in the warm period (0.0037 vs. 0.0024), due to its longer duration and dual-supply mode. For lag time, cold-period values are more widely dispersed due to multiple interacting factors, while warm-period values are concentrated; only warm-period rainfall exhibits a clear monotonic increase in lag time with depth, consistent with unsaturated flow theory. (3) The quantified regression slopes, threshold values, and phase-specific efficiencies provide transferable metrics for calibrating infiltration models and evaluating frozen-ground hydrology schemes. The finding that mixed-phase events are the primary driver of deep-layer recharge, despite accounting for a smaller fraction of the total event count, has direct implications for water resource assessment in high-altitude catchments where precipitation phase composition is often oversimplified. Overall, this study moves beyond qualitative descriptions by providing quantifiable, transferable metrics that advance the mechanistic understanding of precipitation–SM coupling in alpine permafrost regions. Full article

The surface soil in the Shendong mining area is dominated by aeolian sand and sandy sediment, while precipitation is limited, and evaporation is intense. Under these conditions, shallow reconstructed soil has difficulty retaining plant-available water, which constrains vegetation restoration. This study evaluated how low-range increases in fine-particle clay content affect both water retention and upward water conduction in sandy reconstructed soil. Sandy material from the Shangwan mining area and exogenous river clay were mixed into four treatments, and soil water characteristic curves (SWCCs) were determined by centrifuge over 10–1000 kPa matric suction. The data were fitted with the Van Genuchten model and combined with capillary-rise tests. The results showed that increasing fine-particle content shifted the SWCC upward and raised both saturated and residual volumetric water contents. SN10 reached 17.18% and 5.55% volumetric water content at 10 and 1000 kPa, respectively, and its effective water capacity in the 33–1500 kPa range was 17.9% higher than that of ST. At the same time, fine-particle enrichment in the bottom layer reduced wetting-front rise during capillary testing, indicating a trade-off between water storage and upward replenishment. Within the tested fine-particle range, moderate clay addition improved the hydraulic performance of sandy reconstructed soil, but soil design should balance precipitation retention, infiltration, and capillary supply. Because each treatment and soil-column configuration was represented by only one independently prepared experimental unit, experimental variability and reproducibility could not be evaluated. This study should therefore be regarded as a preliminary and exploratory laboratory assessment conducted under a specific set of material-preparation procedures, specimen geometries, and boundary conditions. The results describe specimen-level hydraulic contrasts rather than reproducible treatment effects and should not be directly generalized to field-scale soil reconstruction. They support a preliminary hypothesis for future replicated testing: fine-particle enrichment may increase water retention while slowing upward capillary replenishment. Full article