Search Results (35)

This review synthesizes the corpus of archaeometric and analytical investigations focused on mortar-based materials, including wall paintings, plasters, and concrete, in the Roman Regio X and neighboring territories of northeastern Italy from the mid-1970s to the present. Organized into three principal categories—wall paintings and pigments, structural and foundational mortars, and flooring preparations—the analysis highlights the main methodological advances and progress in petrographic microscopy, mineralogical analysis, and mechanical testing of ancient mortars. Despite extensive case studies, the review identifies a critical need for systematic, statistically robust, and chronologically anchored datasets to fully reconstruct socio-economic and technological landscapes of this provincial region. This work offers a programmatic research agenda aimed at bridging current gaps and fostering integrated understandings of ancient construction technologies in northern Italy. The full forms of the abbreviations used throughout the text to describe the analytical equipment are provided at the end of the document in the “Abbreviations” section. Full article

This paper addresses the archaeological and archaeochemical study of the fragments of mural painting recovered from the excavation of the baths in Julián Besteiro Square in Carmona. The analysis of the fragments allowed us to associate them with the first phase of the building’s decoration, one of the few examples of urban mural painting currently known in Carmona. It was dated between the first half and the middle of the first century AD. The archaeochemical study identified the composition of the mortar and the pigments of the fragments belonging to the middle and upper zones of the wall, confirming the presence of palmitic and stearic fatty acids, as well as traces of oleic and tetradecanoic acids corresponding to the binders used for the execution of the decoration. This discovery provides specific information on the techniques used in Roman architectural decoration, shedding light on the materials and methods used in first-century-AD urban contexts. Full article

A group of wall painting fragments discovered at Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, an important Roman archeological site located in the former Roman province of Dacia (Romania), have been investigated with the aim of defining the material composition of their pictorial layers and exploring the pictorial technology used. In order to preserve the integrity of the murals and minimize sampling, an array of non- and micro-invasive techniques has been employed, including X-ray fluorescence, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and hyperspectral imaging. In accordance with previous studies, the identified color palette was mainly based on iron-rich earth pigments (red and yellow ochres, green earth) and carbon-based blacks (soot/charcoal, bone black). Egyptian blue, lazurite, some lead-based pigments, and potentially indigo were also identified (in complex mixtures) on the uppermost paint layers, typically applied a secco over the a fresco background. The presence of expensive pigments and the existence of a red preparatory drawing, documented for the first time in the region, indicate that the original wall paintings had elaborate schemes and, secondly, reflect the patron’s wealth and social status. Hyperspectral imaging was able to retrieve some faded paint layers in certain cases, helping to recover lost decorative details, an indicator of a more complex polychromy compared to what we see today. The obtained results add important contributions to the limited corpus of data regarding the technical know-how of decorative polychrome painting on plaster found in Roman archeological sites in Romania. Full article

The study applies both a minimal and an extended approach for a comprehensive picture of chemical components in wall paintings, including evidence of degradation. Pigments and ligands were characterized via a multi-methodological investigation, including optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, Raman micro-spectroscopy, GC-MS, and LC-MS/MS. Particularly, the procedure was tested on wall paintings recently excavated from a Roman domus in Santa Maria Capua Vetere. The hypothesis of a very wealthy owner is supported by the evidence of a multi-layer preparation, a rich variety of pigments, and organic ligands (both terpenic resins and animal glue). The absence of calcite in the pictorial layer (via optical and Raman microscopy) and the presence of organic binders (via GC-MS and LC-MS/MS) clearly indicates the a secco technique. Full article

(1) Background: This paper illustrates an innovative methodological approach chosen to study and map the colors of the medieval wall painting of Santa Maria Antiqua in the Roman Forum, one of the pilot sites of the EHEM project (Enhancement of Heritage Experiences: The Middle Ages). Digital Layered Models of Architecture and Mural Paintings over Time). (2) Methods: Two methods were employed to gather information about colors and mapping. Specifically, colorimetry was utilized for spot measurements, and hypercolorimetric multispectral imaging (HMI) was employed to map the same colors sampled through colorimetry. (3) Results: Chromatic data for all colors in the wall paintings were obtained in the CIELAB color space. Additionally, chromatic similarity maps were generated using the innovative HMI system, a multispectral imaging technique capable of obtaining color data information through advanced calibration software named SpectraPick^® (Version 1.1). This comprehensive approach facilitates a thorough understanding of color characteristics and distribution. (4) Conclusions: The color measurements and mapping represent significant advancements in the interpretation of medieval wall paintings, which are often fragmentary and stratigraphically complex. This research sheds new light on the colors used and enhances our understanding of the original appearance of the iconographic patterns. Furthermore, it enables the reconstruction of colors that closely resemble the originals. Full article

In this paper we describe the archaeological and archaeometric analysis of a Third Pompeian Style assemblage from the Blanes dump in Mérida (Spain). Based on the pottery context, the material would have been part of the decoration of a public or private space remodelled towards the end of the 1st century AD. Several samples from to the middle area of the assemblage, including panels, inter-panels and a frieze, were selected and studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Raman, gas chromatography and petrographic analysis. The results revealed the use of hematite, cinnabar, minium and goethite in different panels, as well as goethite, Egyptian blue, calcite, glauconite and carbon for the decorative motifs. They allowed us to define the painting techniques used and how they have affected the degradation of the pigments. Full article

(1) Background: The present paper reports the results of the analyses performed on the wall paintings of Room E of the Domus delle Pitture (Room of the Paintings) in the Roman archaeological site of Volsinii Novi (Bolsena, Viterbo, Central Italy) aimed at supporting the recently concluded restoration. (2) Methods: ultraviolet fluorescence photography was conducted to evaluate the conservation state. Painting materials were investigated via portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (p-XRF), µ-Raman spectroscopy, cross-section analysis under polarizing microscope, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. (3) Results: This analysis revealed the presence of traditional pigments used in Roman wall paintings, such as ochres, earths, and Egyptian blue. Additionally, it identified pigments from previous restoration containing titanium and chromium, along with other materials present in the surface and interface of the wall painting containing arsenic, copper, lead, and vanadium, where a bluish alteration was observed. In these samples, µ-Raman spectroscopy detected calcium oxalates but also copper arsenates, likely conichalcite and/or duftite. (4) Conclusions: This result is highly relevant from an analytical point of view and in relation to the restoration decisions. Addressing the irregular bluish stains on the wall paintings poses challenges in understanding, requiring a decision on whether to remove or retain them. Full article

The archaeological site of villa Horta da Torre in Portugal reveals distinctive architectural features within the context of Roman villae in Hispania. Notably, the triclinium was designed with an artificial cascade originating from a double apse wall, and the walls were adorned with mosaic tessellae panels and marble skirting. During the Roman era, the surrounding area belonged to the former province of Lusitania, with Augusta Emerita serving as its capital. This study examines 11 mortar samples from various contexts and functions, such as masonry, preparatory, render, and opus signinum mortars. A set of complementary analytical techniques was employed to determine the textural and mineralogical compositions of the mortars. The aim was to gain insights into the production techniques and the selection of raw materials within the geological context of this rural construction. It was observed that the processing of raw materials and production techniques did not always adhere to the rules of Vitruvius. A comparison with other villas revealed comparatively less meticulous attention to sand selection and precise layering for mural painting. Nevertheless, it was noted that in preparatory layers for the supranucleus and nucleus tesserae, ceramic pieces were intentionally added to improve the mortar. The binder used was calcitic lime, likely obtained from locally sourced limestone. The nature of aggregates is diversified but consistent with the local geological provenance within a radius of less than 3 km, in accordance with two sand exploration sites. This research aligns with the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, contributing specifically to SDG 11 and Target 11.4, which “aims to strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage”. Full article

Like other hypogeal environments, the Roman Houses of the Caelian Hill are prone to unwanted biological growth. Wide conservative interventions have been carried out at the beginning of this millenium to reduce biodeterioration and physical–chemical damages. Retracing the last monitoring work, we assessed the site’s current state of conservation and biodeterioration intending to check the previous treatments’ effectiveness and deepen the common knowledge of the subterranean biota and their possible biodeteriogenic effects. Starting from the past test areas and the previous identifications of the occurring biodeteriogens, we further isolated and identified the main eubacterial, fungal, and phototrophic settlers, focusing on some detrimental traits for wall paintings (i.e., acid production and carbonate precipitation). The achieved results proved the success of the performed interventions in reducing the wall’s water content. Otherwise, the new conditions raise, in the long term, new concerns about lampenflora, carbonate precipitations, and salt efflorescence. Here, the Caelian Houses’ new status is documented. The possible favouring conditions for the different groups of biodeteriogens, along with the taxonomical novelties, additional risks tied to the anthropization of the resident culturable microbial community, and the possible relation between the black fungus Cyphellophora olivacea and roots, are reported and discussed. Full article

Within the ancient corpus we find depictions of people seeking refuge and protection: in works of fiction, drama and poetry; on wall paintings and vases, they cluster at protective altars and cling to statues of gods who seemingly look on. Yet the ancient evidence does not lend itself easily to exploring attitudes to refugees or asylum seekers. Hence, the question that begins this investigation is, representation of whom? Through a focus on the Greco-Roman material of the Mediterranean region, drawing on select representations, such as the tragedies Medea and Suppliant Women, the historical failed plea of the Plataeans and pictorial imagery of supplication, the goal of the exploration below is not to shape into existence an ancient refugee or asylum seeker experience. Rather, it is to highlight the multiplicity of experiences within narratives of victimhood and the confines of such labels as refugee and asylum seeker. The absence of ancient representations of a generic figure or group of the ‘displaced’, broadly defined, precludes any exceptionalising or homogenising of people in such contexts. Remaining depictions are of named, recognisable protagonists, whose stories are known. There is no ‘mass’ of refuge seekers, to whom a single set of rules could apply across time and space. Given these diverse stories of negotiation for refuge, another aim is to illustrate the ways such experience does not come to define the entirety of who a person is or encompass the complete life and its many layers. This paper addresses the challenges of representation that are exposed by, among others, thinkers such as Hannah Arendt, Liisa Malkki and Gerawork Gizaw. Full article

Situated on the left bank of the Sabato river, the city of Abellinum (Campania region, southern Italy) represents a tangible testimony to the influence of the Roman civilization in Irpinia. At the site, where the remains of the public area of the town are preserved, archaeological excavations unearthed a monumental Pompeian domus, likely owned by Marcus Vipsanius Primigenius, a freedman of Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus. The rooms preserved fine wall paintings of 3rd and 4th Pompeian style, reflecting the social status of the owner. From four rooms overlooking the peristyle, eight specimens of decorated plasters were collected, and petrographic and spectroscopic analyses were carried out to investigate the plastering and painting technology. Thin sections of all plasters depicted a multilayer technology, although differences in mix designs of the supports were highlighted. Some samples are pozzolanic plasters, containing volcanic aggregate, others can be classified as cocciopesto because of the presence of ceramic fragments mixed to the volcanic aggregate. Finally, the presence of marble powder also permitted the identification of marmorino. Moreover, the pigments, applied using a fresco or lime-painting techniques, consist of pure or mixed Fe- and Cu-based pigments to obtain yellow, orange, red, pink, and blue decorations. Full article

A multi-analytical approach is proposed for the detection and quantitative characterization of waxes in wall paintings from the Vesuvian area, in particular in the House of the Skeleton, the House of the Deer and the House of the two Atriums in Herculaneum (Italy). Different types of waxes, of animal, vegetable, mineral and artificial origin, were investigated, as reference materials, by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The obtained results were compared with those found on samples from the wall paintings of Herculaneum. By non-destructive techniques, Raman and FTIR spectroscopies, waxes were generally found in the wall painting fragments investigated. A more quantitative characterization by GC/MS analysis, performed on three representative samples on the three houses, allowed highlighting the features of beeswax. In addition to beeswax, candelilla wax and an artificial wax, compatible with the formulated candelilla wax, were also detected. The presence of candelilla, a vegetable wax introduced in Europe after the sixteenth century, suggests maintenance works probably carried out with the aim of preserving the original colors of the paintings. In addition, by Raman and FTIR spectroscopies hematite and Egyptian blue pigments were identified. Calcite, aragonite and gypsum were also detected. Full article

The authors present the first results of an archaeometric research project set up by the Rovereto Civic Museum Foundation in collaboration with MUSE–Trento Science Museum, aiming at analysing and comparing Roman plasters from different sites in order to highlight similarities and differences related to the preparation and realization of Roman wall renderings. The data concern the characterization of plaster samples from the Roman Villa of Isera and Ventotene (northern and central Italy) by means of a thin-section mineropetrographic examination under an optical microscope and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Full article

This article explores the use and adaptation of the iconographic motif of the waiting servant, known primarily from late Roman wall paintings, mosaics, and other media, within the sphere of Late Antique furnishing textiles. Taking as a case study a fifth- to sixth-century CE hanging in the Art Institute of Chicago’s collection, the first section argues that the addition of elaborate, multihued architectural settings and floral motifs in this hanging and several comparable examples built upon the existing waiting-servant iconography offer an enhanced message of “the good life” within the household. Such compositional elements were rooted in earlier Greek and Roman artistic traditions, namely architectural polychromy and the visual interplay between artifice and reality. However, they also exemplify the Late Antique “jeweled style”, an aesthetic characterized by dazzling visual and polychromatic effects and an interest in artistic mimicry of other media. Striking visual parallels between the waiting-servant hangings and contemporary painted interiors suggest that textiles were considered on par with permanent media and operated in a system of cross-media artistic exchange. The article concludes with a consideration of the materiality of the Chicago hanging and its potential functions within a Late Antique residence, exploring how its portability as a woven object encouraged its flexible use within the home and allowed it to convey and even amplify particular messages through its juxtaposition with other objects, architecture, or people. Full article

(1) Background: Due to the precarious situation of many monuments or archeological sites, analytical investigations are necessary to obtain information about the used materials, as well as to identify the most appropriate solutions for their conservation/restoration. This paper addresses the characterization of mural painting fragments collected during the excavation in 2018 in Rapoltu Mare (La vie), Deva. (2) Methods: Specific analytical techniques were used, as follows: X-ray diffractometry (XRD), wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF), optical microscopy (OM), zoom microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), spectroscopic techniques (UV–Vis, FTIR, Raman), porosity and thermal analysis, all of which provide information about the structure, chemical composition, morphology and topography of pigments and their deterioration as well. (3) Results: Up to seven different pigments were identified: Egyptian blue, carbon, calcite, gypsum, hematite, goethite and green earth. Egyptian Blue is identified in all the other color areas, except the white area: in the green zone (as degradation product with beeswax) and in the red zone (in mixture with ochre) too. In addition, carbon and beeswax were highlighted as toner and binder for pigments, respectively. In the presence of the organic beeswax binding environment, the Egyptian blue pigment particles darkened or turned yellow significantly, changing the blue to a greenish color. It is also possible to identify wollastonite (CaSiO₃) in the blue pigment, which indicates that the temperature used in the manufacturing of Egyptian blue was higher than 950 °C from thermal analysis. The presence of apatite, hematite and gypsum deposits in the Hunedoara region certifies that these pigments could have been of local origin, as demonstrated by the presence of analytically identified elements (Fe, P, S, Ca). (4) Conclusions: The analytical techniques used for such investigations have highlighted the main pigments used in Roman times for various Roman murals. Full article