Archaeological and Archaeochemical Analysis of the Painting in the Baths in Julián Besteiro Square, Carmona (Seville, Spain)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Archaeological Context
1.2. The Pictorial Remains in Room E-2
1.2.1. Descriptive Study
1.2.2. Compositional Analysis
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Optical Microscopy
2.2. X-Ray Diffraction
2.3. X-Ray Fluorescence
2.4. Micro-Raman Spectroscopy
2.5. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
2.6. Binding Media Extraction Process
3. Results
3.1. Mortar
3.2. Surface Morphology
3.3. Pigment Analysis
3.4. Binding Media Extraction Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Bendala Galán, M. La Necrópolis Romana de Carmona (Sevilla); Diputación Provincial: Sevilla, Spain, 1976. [Google Scholar]
- Cosano Hidalgo, D.; Román Rodríguez, J.M.; Lafont, F.; Ruiz Arrebola, J.R. Archaeometric Identification of a Perfume from Roman Times. Heritage 2023, 6, 4472–4491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cosano Hidalgo, D.; Román Rodríguez, J.M.; Esquivel Merino, M.D.; Lafont, F.; Ruiz Arrebola, J.R. New Archaeochemical Insights into Roman Wine from Baetica. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 2024, 57, 104636. [Google Scholar]
- Fernández Díaz, A.; Castillo Alcántara, G.; Román Rodríguez, J.M. Dos nuevos hallazgos de pintura funeraria en Carmona. In Antiqva Pictvra. Técnicas y Procesos de Ejecución, Conservación y Puesta en Valor. Actas del XV Congreso de la AIPMA (Association Internationale pour la Peinture Murale Antique); Fernández Díaz, A., Castillo Alcántara, A., Eds.; Editum: Murcia, Spain, in press.
- Caballos Rufino, A.F. Carmona Romana; Universidad de Sevilla: Carmona, Spain, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- García Ramírez, L. Los estucos romanos de Carmona. In Monografías de Arte: 1999–2000; Calle González, J.M., Ed.; Universidad de Sevilla: Sevilla, Spain, 2000; pp. 1–23. [Google Scholar]
- Abad Casal, L. La Pintura Romana en España; Universidad de Alicante: Alicante, Spain; Universidad de Sevilla: Sevilla, Spain, 1982. [Google Scholar]
- Abad Casal, L.; Bendala Galán, M. La Tumba de Servilia de la Necrópolis romana de Carmona: Su decoración pictórica. Habis 1975, 6, 295–325. [Google Scholar]
- Baceiredo Rodríguez, M.I.; Fernández Gómez, F. El Pintor Rodríguez Jaldón y La Necrópolis de Carmona. In Carmona Romana; Caballos Rufino, A.F., Ed.; Universidad de Sevilla: Carmona, Spain, 2012; pp. 99–114. [Google Scholar]
- Jorge-Villar, S.E.; Rodríguez Temiño, I.; Edwards, H.G.M.; Jiménez Hernández, A.; Ruiz Cecilia, J.I.; Miralles, I. The Servilia Tomb: An Architecturally and Pictorially Important Roman Building. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 2018, 10, 1207–1223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lineros Romero, R.; Gil de los Reyes, M.S.; Martínez, E.; Cardenete López, R.; Gómez, T.; Rodríguez, I. Informe de las excavaciones arqueológicas en la Plaza de San José/Julián Besteiro (Carmona, Sevilla). Anu. Arqueol. de Andal. 1986, 366–369. [Google Scholar]
- Román Rodríguez, J.M. Las Termas de La Plaza de Julián Besteiro, Carmona (Sevilla). Romula 2019, 18, 211–253. [Google Scholar]
- Lineros Romero, R.; Román Rodríguez, J.M. Sobre el origen y formación del urbanismo romano en la ciudad de Carmona. In Hispaniae Urbes. Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Ciudades Históricas; Beltrán Fortes, J., Rodríguez Gutiérrez, O., Eds.; Editorial Universidad de Sevilla: Sevilla, Spain, 2012; pp. 607–643. [Google Scholar]
- Lineros Romero, R. Urbanismo Romano de Carmona I. Carel Carmona Revista de Estudios Locales 2005, 987–1033. [Google Scholar]
- Alföldy, G. La sociedad del municipio de Carmo. In Carmona Romana; Caballos Rufino, A., Ed.; Ayuntamiento de Carmona, Universidad de Sevilla: Carmona, Spain, 2012; pp. 519–541. [Google Scholar]
- Román Rodríguez, J.M. Excavación arqueológica preventiva en el solar No10 de la calle Flamencos, Carmona (Sevilla). Anu. Arqueol. Andal. 2007, 1–54. [Google Scholar]
- Román Rodríguez, J.M. Evidencias funerarias de la Edad del Bronce en Carmona. I. A. P. en el Solar No1 de la Calle Torre Del Oro. Anu. Arqueol. de Andal. 2005, 1000–1050. [Google Scholar]
- Beltrán Fortes, J. Arqueología de la Carmona romana: El esquema urbano. In Carmona Romana; Caballos Rufino, A., Ed.; Ayuntamiento de Carmona, Universidad de Sevilla: Carmona, Spain, 2012; pp. 185–218. [Google Scholar]
- Lineros Romero, R.; Marquez Moreno, C. Carmona romana. Arquitectura civil en la Antigüedad. In Urbanismo, Arquitectura y Patrimonio en Carmona. Actas del IX Congreso de Historia de Carmona; González Jiménez, M., Caballos Rufino, A., Ruiz de la Rosa, J.A., Eds.; Ayuntamiento de Carmona, Universidad de Sevilla: Carmona, Spain, 2014; pp. 79–100. [Google Scholar]
- Heckenbenner, D. Peintures Murales Romaines au pays de Sarrebourg: Le Péristyle de la Villa de Saint-Ulrich; Musee du Pays de Sarrebourg: Sarrebourg, France, 1985. [Google Scholar]
- Barbet, A. La Peinture Murale en Gaule Romaine; Picard: Paris, France, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Groetembril, S.; Le Cloirec, G.; Amar, B.H.; Labaune-Jean, F.; Lefèvre, J.-F. Les Décors sous la maison des Bacchantes à Sainte-Colombe (Rhône). In Pictor 11. Peintures et Stucs d’époque Romaine: Études Toichographologiques; Boislève, J., Carrive, M., Monier, F., Eds.; Ausonius Éditions: Bordeaux, France, 2022; pp. 57–74. [Google Scholar]
- Esposito, D. Le Officine Pittoriche di IV Stile a Pompei: Dinamiche Produttive ed Economico-Sociali; L’Erma di Bretschneider: Rome, Italy, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Esposito, D. La Pittura di Ercolano; L’Erma di Bretschneider: Rome, Italy, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Garrido, J.R.; Molina, B.; Del Moral, J.C. Las Garzas en España: Población Reproductora e Invernante en 2010–2011 y Método de Censo; SEO/BirdLife: Madrid, Spain, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Bragantini, I.; Sampaolo, V. La Pittura Pompeiana; Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Electa-Napoli: Naples, Italy, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Eristov, H. Les Éléments Architecturaux Dans la Peinture Campanienne du Quatrième Style; Publications de l’École Française de Rome: Rome, Italy, 1994; Volume 187. [Google Scholar]
- Laidlaw, A. The First Style in Pompeii: Painting and Architecture; G. Bretschneider: Rome, Italy, 1985. [Google Scholar]
- Frizot, M. Stucs de Gaule et des Provinces Romaines: Motifs et Techniques; Centre de Recherches sur les Techniques Gréco-Romaines: Dijon, France, 1977. [Google Scholar]
- Casoli, A.; Musini, P.C.; Palla, G. Gas Chromatographic-Mass Spectrometric Approach to the Problem of Characterizing Binding Media in Paintings. J. Chromatogr. A 1996, 731, 237–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manzano, E.; Rodriguez-Simón, L.R.; Navas, N.; Checa-Moreno, R.; Romero-Gámez, M.; Capitan-Vallvey, L.F. Study of the GC–MS Determination of the Palmitic–Stearic Acid Ratio for the Characterisation of Drying Oil in Painting: La Encarnación by Alonso Cano as a Case Study. Talanta 2011, 84, 1148–1154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vitruvio, M. Los X Libros de Arquitectura de Marco Vitruvio Polión; Cicon Edic.: Cáceres, Spain, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Franquelo, M.; Robador, M.; Ramírez-Valle, V.; Durán, A.; Jiménez de Haro, M.; Pérez-Rodríguez, J. Roman ceramics of hydraulic mortars used to build the Mithraeum house of Mérida (Spain). J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2008, 92, 331–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aliatis, I.; Bersani, D.; Campani, E.; Casoli, A.; Lottici, P.P.; Mantovan, S.; Marino, I.G.; Ospitali, F. Green Pigments of the Pompeian Artists’ Palette. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2009, 73, 532–538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Béarat, H. Chemical and Mineralogical Analyses of Gallo-Roman Wall Painting from Dietikon, Switzerland. Archaeometry 1996, 38, 81–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Piovesan, R.; Siddall, R.; Mazzoli, C.; Nodari, L. The Temple of Venus (Pompeii): A Study of the Pigments and Painting Techniques. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2011, 38, 2633–2643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Legodi, M.A.; de Waal, D. The Preparation of Magnetite, Goethite, Hematite and Maghemite of Pigment Quality from Mill Scale Iron Waste. Dye. Pigment. 2007, 74, 161–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gunasekaran, S.; Anbalagan, G.; Pandi, S. Raman and Infrared Spectra of Carbonates of Calcite Structure. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2006, 37, 892–899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Faria, D.L.A.; Venâncio Silva, S.; De Oliveira, M.T. Raman Microspectroscopy of Some Iron Oxides and Oxyhydroxides. J. Raman Spectrosc. 1997, 28, 873–878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCarty, K.F. Inelastic Light Scattering in α-Fe2O3: Phonon vs Magnon Scattering. Solid State Commun. 1988, 68, 799–802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pailhé, N.; Wattiaux, A.; Gaudon, M.; Demourgues, A. Impact of Structural Features on Pigment Properties of α-Fe2O3 Haematite. J. Solid State Chem. 2008, 181, 2697–2704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Das, S.; Hendry, M.J. Application of Raman Spectroscopy to Identify Iron Minerals Commonly Found in Mine Wastes. Chem. Geol. 2011, 290, 101–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cerrato, E.J.; Cosano Hidalgo, D.; Esquivel Merino, M.D.; Jiménez-Sanchidrián, C.; Ruiz Arrebola, J.R. A Multi-Analytical Study of Funerary Wall Paintings in the Roman Necropolis of Camino Viejo de Almodóvar (Córdoba, Spain). Eur. Phys. J. Plus 2020, 135, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Castillo Alcántara, G.; Fernández Díaz, A.; Cosano Hidalgo, D.; Ruiz Arrebola, J.R. A Compositional and Archaeometric Study of the Third Pompeian Style Located at the Mons Saturnus of Carthago Nova (Cartagena, España). J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 2022, 46, 103670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pagès-Camagna, S.; Colinart, S.; Coupry, C. Fabrication Processes of Archaeological Egyptian Blue and Green Pigments Enlightened by Raman Microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy. J. Raman Spectrosc. 1999, 30, 313–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cerrato, E.J.; Cosano Hidalgo, D.; Esquivel Merino, M.D.; Jiménez-Sanchidrián, C.; Ruiz Arrebola, J.R. Spectroscopic Analysis of Pigments in a Wall Painting from a High Roman Empire Building in Córdoba (Spain) and Identification of the Application Technique. Microchem. J. 2021, 168, 106444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ntasi, G.; Rossi, M.; Alberico, M.; Tomeo, A.; Birolo, L.; Vergara, A. On the Identification of the a Fresco or a Secco Preparative Technique of Wall Paintings. Heritage 2024, 7, 3902–3918. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Duran, A.; Jimenez De Haro, M.C.; Perez-Rodriguez, J.L.; Franquelo, M.L.; Herrera, L.K.; Justo, A. Determination of Pigments and Binders in Pompeian Wall Paintings Using Synchrotron Radiation—High-Resolution X-Ray Powder Diffraction and Conventional Spectroscopy—Chromatography. Archaeometry 2010, 52, 286–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cerrato, E.J.; Cosano Hidalgo, D.; Esquivel Merino, M.D.; Otero, R.; Jimémez-Sanchidrián, C.; Ruiz Arrebola, J.R. A Multi-Analytical Study of a Wall Painting in the Satyr Domus in Córdoba, Spain. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2020, 232, 118148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cuní, J.; Cuní, P.; Eisen, B.; Savizky, R.; Bové, J. Characterization of the Binding Medium Used in Roman Encaustic Paintings on Wall and Wood. Anal. Methods 2012, 4, 659–669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salvadori, M. Horti Picti. Forma e Significato Del Giardino Dipinto Nella Pittura Romana; Padova University Press: Padova, Italy, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Fernandez Díaz, A.; Guiral Pelegrín, C.; Mañas Romero, I. La Decoración de Las Termas Romanas de Hispania: Un Programa Pictórico y Musivo Compartido. In Termas Públicas de Hispania: Actas del Congreso Internacional Termas Públicas de Hispania; Noguera Celdrán, J.M., García Entero, V., Pavía Page, M., Eds.; Editorial Universidad de Sevilla: Sevilla, Spain, 2020; pp. 159–184. [Google Scholar]
- Íñiguez Berrozpe, L.; Cosano Hidalgo, D.; Coutelas, A.; Guiral Pelegrín, C.; Ruiz Arrebola, J.R. Methodology for the Identification of Roman Pictorial Workshops: Application to the Second Style Sets of the Municipium Augusta Bilbilis (Calatayud, Saragossa, Spain). Mediterr. Archaeol. Archaeom. 2024, 24, 154–179. [Google Scholar]
- Cerrato, E.J.; Íñiguez Berrozpe, L.; Cosano Hidalgo, D.; Guiral Pelegrín, C.; Ruiz Arrebola, J.R. Multi-Analytical Identification of a Painting Workshop at the Roman Archaeological Site of Bilbilis (Saragossa, Spain). J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 2021, 38, 103108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alberico, M.; Rossi, M.; Birolo, L.; Ntasi, G.; Maddalena, P.; Salvatore, M.; Tomeo, A.; Vergara, A. Characterization of Multi-Layered Wall Paintings from a Roman Domus in Santa Maria Capua Vetere. Acta IMEKO 2024, 13, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Photograph | Information |
---|---|
Fragment 1 (F1) | |
Macroscopic color: Yellow, red, white, blue | |
Compound found: Goethite (α-FeOOH), Hematite (α-Fe2O3); Calcite (CaCO3); Egyptian blue (CaCuSi4O10) | |
Mortar components: Calcite (C); quartz (Q) | |
Fragment 2 (F2) | |
Macroscopic color: White | |
Compound found: Calcite (CaCO3) | |
Mortar components: Calcite (C); quartz (Q); |
Fragment | Layer | Composition (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MgO | Al2O3 | SiO2 | K2O | CaO | Fe2O3 | Others | ||
F1 | Layer closest to the paint layer | 0.35 | 2.58 | 42.9 | 0.57 | 47.8 | 3.57 | 2.23 |
Layer farthest from the paint layer | 0.30 | 2.57 | 43.9 | 0.57 | 49.6 | 1.76 | 1.3 | |
F2 | Decorative cornice mortar | 1.14 | 1.15 | 6.43 | 0.28 | 87.9 | 0.98 | 2.12 |
Cornice base mortar | 0.5 | 1.18 | 4.91 | 0.26 | 90.1 | 1.06 | 1.99 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Castillo Alcantara, G.; Cosano Hidalgo, D.; Fernández Díaz, A.; Román Rodríguez, J.M.; Lafont, F.; Ruiz Arrebola, J.R. Archaeological and Archaeochemical Analysis of the Painting in the Baths in Julián Besteiro Square, Carmona (Seville, Spain). Heritage 2025, 8, 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8020067
Castillo Alcantara G, Cosano Hidalgo D, Fernández Díaz A, Román Rodríguez JM, Lafont F, Ruiz Arrebola JR. Archaeological and Archaeochemical Analysis of the Painting in the Baths in Julián Besteiro Square, Carmona (Seville, Spain). Heritage. 2025; 8(2):67. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8020067
Chicago/Turabian StyleCastillo Alcantara, Gonzalo, Daniel Cosano Hidalgo, Alicia Fernández Díaz, Juan Manuel Román Rodríguez, Fernando Lafont, and José Rafael Ruiz Arrebola. 2025. "Archaeological and Archaeochemical Analysis of the Painting in the Baths in Julián Besteiro Square, Carmona (Seville, Spain)" Heritage 8, no. 2: 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8020067
APA StyleCastillo Alcantara, G., Cosano Hidalgo, D., Fernández Díaz, A., Román Rodríguez, J. M., Lafont, F., & Ruiz Arrebola, J. R. (2025). Archaeological and Archaeochemical Analysis of the Painting in the Baths in Julián Besteiro Square, Carmona (Seville, Spain). Heritage, 8(2), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8020067