Search Results (516)

Standard ISO testing of cosmetic emulsions offers limited insight into the microstructural mechanisms governing long-term stability. We hypothesize that a single weight-percent increase in emulsifier concentration is sufficient to determine, through its effect on inter-bilayer junction connectivity, whether the lamellar gel network consolidates or fails. To test this, we apply a two-tier strategy combining ISO/TR 18811 testing and Turbiscan turbidimetry with rheology, laser diffraction, and AI-assisted polarized light microscopy, on two oil-in-water emulsions structured by a lamellar gel network and stabilized by Cetearyl Alcohol/Cetearyl Glucoside at 2 wt% (Emulsion A) and 3 wt% (Emulsion B) over 30 days of storage. First-tier testing distinguished formulations only at Day 30; Turbiscan index values (2.64, 1.78) stayed below threshold throughout. The second-tier protocol resolved structural divergence from Day 8 to 15, two to three weeks earlier. In Emulsion A, a transient birefringent fraction (51.5% at Day 8) preceded network disruption, droplet coalescence, and a drift of the loss tangent toward more liquid-like values. In Emulsion B, birefringence expanded to 98.4% by Day 30 and the loss tangent declined to 0.325. These results indicate that a 1 wt% difference in emulsifier concentration, within a range of industrial use, is sufficient to determine whether the lamellar gel network consolidates or fails, and that combining rheology, laser diffraction and AI-assisted microscopy resolves this divergence two to three weeks before conventional ISO criteria are met. Full article

Breast cancer treatment still faces challenges including local recurrence, systemic toxicity, tumor heterogeneity, drug resistance, and immunosuppression. Conventional systemic administration provides limited exposure at the tumor site and exhibits significant toxicity. Injectable hydrogels, combining the properties of minimally invasive administration, in situ gelation, local retention, and sustained release, have become a key platform for local precision drug delivery. Compared with nanomedicines or free drugs, hydrogels can both prolong drug retention time and achieve on-demand release through the modulation of crosslinking density, degradation rate, and responsive chemical bonds. This review is organized around the material logic of such systems. Injectable hydrogels are first classified into natural, synthetic, hybrid, supramolecular, nanocomposite, and self-healing systems, the in situ gelation chemistries available to each are compared, and network parameters such as crosslinking density, mesh size, swelling, porosity, modulus, and rheology are related to release kinetics and intratumoral retention. Current research is primarily advancing along two directions: one is the construction of pH-, enzyme-, redox/ROS-, hypoxia-, ATP-, glucose-or thermo-responsive hydrogels; the other is achieving active targeting by integrating functionalized hydrogels with targets such as CD44, folate receptor, integrins, EGFR, transferrin receptor, and HER2 or with biomimetic cell-membrane coatings. On this basis, hydrogels have been extended to cancer vaccines, immune checkpoint modulation, local delivery of CAR-T/CAR-NK, as well as combination therapies involving chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, chemodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, radiosensitization, gene therapy, and theranostics. The constraints imposed on hydrogel design by different payload classes, including small molecules, natural products, proteins and peptides, nucleic acids, antibodies, exosomes, and gene-editing machinery, are further examined, and imaging-integrated theranostic gels are discussed together with the emerging role of machine learning and digital fabrication in hydrogel optimization. Based on the biological foundations of breast cancer, this review summarizes advances in the material design, microenvironment-responsive release, targeting strategies, immunomodulation, and combination therapy of hydrogels, critically evaluates the limitations of each strategy, and aims to provide a reference for the design of mechanistically well-defined and translatable hydrogel delivery systems for breast cancer. Full article

This study examines the possibility of plastic deformation in low-modulus gels and yielding liquids. The model systems were a gelatin-sodium alginate hydrogel and the same gel filled with nanoscale zinc oxide particles. The experiments involved short- and long-term observations of deformation development under a prescribed shear stress, followed by stress removal and monitoring of deformation recovery. The initial hydrogel is a typical soft-matter system with an elastic modulus of 63 Pa. At low stresses, residual deformations were observed in addition to elastic deformations; these residual deformations reached up to approximately one half of the total deformation. They appeared instantaneously, depended on the applied stress, and did not change during long-term observation. This behavior is characteristic of plastic deformation. The incorporation of 5% dispersed ZnO nanoparticles converted the gel into a yielding liquid. This transition is attributed to partial disruption of the physical network, as evidenced by a sharp decrease in the elastic modulus to 18 Pa and by comparison of the FTIR spectra of the unfilled gel and the nanoparticle-modified gel. The yield stress of the yielding liquid was 7 Pa. However, at stresses below this value, while the material remained in a gel-like state, steady-state flow with a very high viscosity, at the order of 10⁵–10⁶ Pa s, was detected. After the yield point was exceeded, steady-state flow with a much lower viscosity, at the order of 3 Pa s, occurred, as is characteristic of conventional liquids containing a solid filler. Nevertheless, a small fraction of plastic deformation was still observed. Thus, the experimental results show that physical gels can behave as elastic-plastic media and that yielding liquids may flow below the yield point with very high viscosity. All existing models of the mechanical behavior of gels represent various combinations of viscous and elastic elements, to which, for yielding liquids, a slider is added that begins to slide after overcoming static friction. This element models the yield point. However, no model includes plasticity as an independent mechanical phenomenon. The phenomenon of plasticity should therefore be taken into account when developing rheological models of yielding liquids. Full article

Rennet-induced yak casein gels have longer gelation time but higher elastic modulus than bovine casein gels, which limits cheese processing efficiency. In this study, yak and bovine casein micelles were mixed at ratios of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100 (denoted as Y100, Y75, Y50, Y25, and Y0, respectively). HPLC was used to monitor the relative peak area of released glycomacropeptide (GMP) during κ-casein hydrolysis (normalized to the 60-min maximum) to characterize rennet catalysis kinetics, and the effects on rheology, texture, and microstructure were analyzed. The results showed that the mixing ratio significantly modulated the hydrolysis rate of κ-casein, storage modulus (G′), hardness, chewiness, adhesiveness, and gel network compactness. Among them, Y75 (75% yak casein) exhibited the best performance, with G′ reaching 1709.78 Pa and a gel induction time of only 11.67 min; its hardness, chewiness, and adhesiveness were 1.46, 1.22, and 1.59 times those of pure bovine casein gel, respectively, and its microstructure showed a more uniform and dense pore distribution. In conclusion, optimizing the yak–bovine casein micelle ratio (75:25) can significantly improve gel quality while maintaining processing efficiency, providing a theoretical basis for mixed-milk cheese production, though further validation in real whole-fat milk systems is required. Full article

This study used black soldier fly protein (BSFP) as a base material and added 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5% of grape seed anthocyanidins (GSAs) to prepare composite gels. Through the combined use of low-field nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and rheometry, the relationships among GSA dosage (0–3%), gel structural properties (secondary protein conformation, water status, and microscopic morphology), and rheological printability were systematically evaluated. It was found that the better GSA content fell within 1–3%, and under this condition the extrusion-type 3D printing performance of the composite gels was significantly enhanced. At a 3% addition amount, the proportion of disordered conformations decreased (random coiling decreased from 15.93% to 15.46%), the ordered structure increased (β-sheet increased from 35.25% to 35.43%), and deformation resistance was enhanced. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance showed an increase in the proportion of non-flowing water and an increase in physical constraints. Scanning electron microscopy showed a reduction in pore size and a thickening of pore walls, forming a denser 3D network. Rheologic analysis indicated that 3% GSA reached the maximum zero-shear viscosity (η₀) and that the storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) were higher in the experimental group than those in the control group. Printing fidelity increased from 45.73% in the control group to 60.08% in the 1% group, 62.14% in the 2% group, and 71.05% in the 3% group (p < 0.05). The 3–5% groups (fidelity: 71.05–75.66%) all achieved hollow cylindrical printing without collapse and had excellent self-supporting performance. However, excessive addition (4–5%) caused excess GSA to adsorb onto the protein skeleton surface, reducing the apparent viscosity and damaging the printing performance. Based on all the indicators, the composite gel with 3% GSA achieved the best balance between printability and structural integrity. Our research offers a new idea for using flavonoid compounds to improve the 3D printing performance of insect protein gels. The prepared composite gels can be used as food printing inks and applied to personalized nutrition customization, functional food development, and sustainable protein alternative product fields. Full article

Chlorogenic acid (CA) exhibits robust lipid antioxidant activity within meat matrices. However, excess CA generates quinones that alter and damage porcine myofibrillar protein (MP). This study investigated the restorative effects of chitosan (CS) on MPs suffering from CA-induced oxidative damage. Three CA concentrations (0, 50, 100 μmol/g protein) and five CS dosages (0.125–1.0 g/g protein) were used to evaluate conformation, turbidity, surface hydrophobicity, solubility, emulsification, rheology, and gel properties. CA-oxidative damage to MP triggered protein unfolding, thiol depletion and aggregation, greatly lowering solubility, emulsifying capacity, viscoelasticity and water retention. CS exerted biphasic effects on turbidity, surface hydrophobicity, tertiary structure, and solubility only under severe CA-induced oxidative modification (100 μmol/g CA): low-to-medium CS aggravated adverse changes, while 1.0 g/g CS partially reversed such damage. For conformational, emulsion and gel parameters, CS consistently alleviated structural disorder caused by CA-induced oxidative damage across all treatments, with 1.0 g/g CS optimally mitigating α-helix loss and uneven emulsion droplets. Significant CA × CS interactions were detected for conformation, turbidity, surface hydrophobicity, solubility, emulsification and rheology (p < 0.001). Gel strength, water-holding capacity and water distribution exhibited non-significant interactions (p > 0.05), revealing independent additive effects of CA and CS on gel networks. Overall, high-dose CS partially ameliorates structural and functional defects of MP caused by CA-induced oxidative damage, which provides theoretical support for the combined application of polyphenols and polysaccharides in meat protein regulation. Full article

High-intensity ultrasound (HIUS) is a non-thermal processing technology with the potential to modify the functionality of plant-derived materials. This study evaluated the effect of HIUS on the techno-functional properties, rheology, phenolic profile, aloin content, and antioxidant activity of Aloe vera gel at 11, 28, and 43 W/cm² for 2.5, 5, and 7.5 min. HIUS reduced swelling capacity from 284.92 mL/g in the untreated sample by up to ~60%, while water retention capacity increased from 45.62 g/g to values close to 90 g/g. Fat adsorption capacity reached its highest value at 28 W/cm² for 5 min (~60 g/g). Rheological analysis confirmed shear-thinning behavior and a marked viscosity reduction after sonication, with zero-shear viscosity ranging from 0.055 to 0.569 Pa·s. Total phenolic content decreased from ~6.0 mg GAE/g dm in the untreated gel to 2.6–3.3 mg GAE/g dm after HIUS. Aloin showed a non-linear response, increasing from ~43 to ~48 mg/g at 28 W/cm² when processing time increased from 2.5 to 5 min, followed by an approximately 20% decrease at 7.5 min. Antioxidant activity ranged from 31 to 47% DPPH inhibition and 75 to 150 µmol TE/g ORAC. These findings indicate that moderate HIUS conditions improve selected functional properties while limiting bioactive compound degradation. Full article

The study investigated the addition of nanocellulose (NC) as a reinforcing agent in wood-phenol resorcinol formaldehyde (PRF) composites for thermoset extrusion-based manufacturing. Three types of NC (cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), bleached nanofibers (BNFs), and unbleached nanofibers (UBNFs)) at 1–3% loadings and new (NP) and 4-year old (OP) PRF resin were evaluated by a combination of thermal analysis, rheology and flexural testing. The NP was shown to gel at a lower temperature than OP. CNC addition advanced gelation and yield stress; whereas, UBNFs reduced viscosity and yield stress through plasticization but were suitable for extrusion. The NC-reinforced wood–PRF formulations were successfully extruded into continuous composite rods. A flexural modulus of 8.1 GPa and strength of 77 MPa was achieved. Moreover, NC was shown to reduce 24 h water absorption compared to controls. These findings show that NC reinforcement improves wood–PRF composites systems for potential sustainable additive manufacturing. Full article

Predicting printability and final texture in extrusion-based 3D printing of soft, self-supporting food gels remains challenging, particularly when realistic plant-based ingredients are used instead of simplified model systems. In this study, two plant protein–hydrocolloid inks based on commercial pea protein isolate (PPI) and chickpea protein concentrate (CPC) were developed and compared within the same hydrocolloid framework (0.36% low-acyl gellan gum and 1.00% xanthan gum). The formulations differed in protein ingredient level, moisture content, sorbitol concentration, and salt origin, allowing evaluation of how complete formulation design governs rheology, printability, and texture. The CPC-based ink showed higher yield stress than the PPI-based ink (158.10 ± 18.17 vs. 119.56 ± 18.84 Pa), whereas both inks exhibited similar shear-thinning behavior (n ≈ 0.35). Thixotropic recovery at 60 °C was limited in both systems (16–19%), while oscillatory tests revealed weak-gel behavior, with higher Bohlin gel strength for the PPI-based ink (65.69 ± 5.59 vs. 38.97 ± 2.08 kPa). Both formulations enabled continuous extrusion and the fabrication of self-supporting printed objects, although geometric fidelity of the internal infill remained limited, particularly in CPC samples. Compression testing showed that CPC gels were slightly stiffer and tougher, whereas PPI gels were more resistant to irreversible deformation. Overall, the results indicate that when commercial ingredients are used for food 3D printing purposes, rheology, printability, and final texture were governed primarily by the formulation design, rather than by protein source alone. Full article

Amino acid-based surfactants are promising ingredients for cosmetic formulations, combining mildness with intrinsic self-assembly properties. A recent challenge in the cosmetic field is the replacement of synthetic polymers, used as rheological modifiers, with sustainable and biodegradable alternatives. In this work, sodium cocoyl glycinate (SCG) and sodium cocoyl alaninate (SCA) were investigated as both surfactants and supramolecular gelators for the development of a “supramolecular shampoo”. pK_a analysis and rheological studies revealed that SCG forms robust gel networks at pH 5, whereas SCA shows limited stability. The progressive incorporation of typical cosmetic ingredients, including cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB), preservatives, conditioning agents, and fragrance, led to a controlled decrease in mechanical strength while preserving pseudoplastic behavior. The final formulation remained stable under accelerated aging and freeze–thaw conditions for months. These results demonstrate that supramolecular structuring offers a viable and sustainable alternative to conventional polymer-based systems in shampoo formulations. Full article

Offshore high-temperature steam flooding suffers severe steam channeling, uneven steam intake and low thermal efficiency, while conventional profile control agents fail to adapt to coupled harsh environments of 200–350 °C high temperature, ultra-high salinity and continuous steam shear. Existing reviews mainly focus on onshore thermal reservoirs or single foam/gel materials, lacking a targeted, gel-oriented systematic review matching unique offshore platform constraints. Guided by the integrated framework of “flow control–diversion–enhanced sweep efficiency”, this work establishes a six-dimensional quantitative screening standard and unified performance comparison database to systematically review foam, gel, particle, thermo-responsive and composite profile control systems. Differing from petroleum engineering-oriented summaries, this paper subdivides high-temperature gels into six categories from a polymer material perspective, elaborating their crosslinking mechanisms, thermal rheology and cyclic steam degradation rules; the inherent advantages, limitations and offshore applicable boundaries of each medium are quantitatively compared, with special emphasis on the unique “deep migration followed by in situ thermal activation” mechanism of thermo-responsive materials. Composite systems relieve single-material defects via multi-mechanism synergy yet face complicated on-site deployment barriers. Three core bottlenecks restricting field application are identified: the irreconcilable trade-off between deep propagation and stable plugging, large deviation between static aging results and dynamic anti-scouring performance, and exclusive engineering limitations of offshore platforms. A dedicated standardized dynamic laboratory evaluation scheme for cyclic steam flooding is proposed to narrow lab-field performance gaps. Future research priorities include salt-resistant thermally responsive composite gel modification, low-cost multi-component compound formula optimization, unified dynamic evaluation criteria and staged material matching guidelines to realize balanced performance of high-temperature tolerance, deep delivery and offshore operability. Full article

As the core binder material of asphalt pavement, the rheological properties of asphalt directly determine the service performance and service life of the pavement. Under actual service conditions, asphalt is constantly exposed to a multi-coupling environment involving temperature variation, vehicle load, and ultraviolet aging, which easily leads to irreversible rheological deterioration and induces diseases such as rutting and cracking. Aiming at the insufficient research on the rheological evolution law and microscopic damage mechanism under the coupling of the above three factors, this study took 70# base asphalt as the research object and adopted a combination of macro-performance testing and microstructure characterization. The high- and low-temperature rheological properties, permanent deformation resistance, and fatigue resistance of asphalt under multi-coupling effects were systematically evaluated through three conventional index tests: dynamic shear rheology (DSR), multiple stress creep recovery (MSCR), linear amplitude sweep (LAS) and bending beam rheology (BBR). Combined with gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and thin-layer chromatography with flame ionization detection (TLC–FID), the evolution laws of molecular distribution and chemical components were revealed, and the deterioration mechanism of multi-coupling effects was clarified. The results show that compared with the control group, after 72 h of coupling treatment, the penetration decreases by 32.6%, the softening point increases by 18.3%, and the ductility decreases by 45.8%. The high-temperature complex modulus decreases by 51.2%, the low-temperature creep stiffness increases by 76.4%, and the fatigue life decreases by 58.6% on average. At the microscopic level, obvious molecular polymerization and component weight gain occur in asphalt: the content of macromolecular components rises from 18.7% to 32.1%, asphaltene content increases from 12.3% to 25.8%, and aromatic content decreases from 42.6% to 28.3%. Temperature variation, load, and ultraviolet aging present significant deterioration effects, rather than a simple superposition of single factors. Prolonged aging and increased load aggravate the hardening of asphalt, while extreme temperature variation further weakens the rheological properties through microscopic damage. This study clarifies the internal relationship between the microscopic structure and macroscopic properties of asphalt under multi-coupling effects, improves the theory of anti-coupling damage to asphalt, and provides an important theoretical basis and experimental support for damage-resistant design, material selection, and service life prediction of asphalt pavement. Full article

The development of sustainable construction materials requires innovative strategies to optimize cement hydration and reduce clinker consumption. This study evaluates the influence of ammonia-controlled sol–gel synthesis on the physicochemical properties of nanosilica and its subsequent impact on the performance of sustainable cement pastes. Nanosilica was synthesized at pH 9 and 11, revealing that the pH 9 environment yields a superior specific surface area (655 m²/g) and enhanced colloidal stability (ζ = −42.5 mV). These properties triggered a 61% increase in compressive strength at 3 days with a low dosage (0.4 wt%), significantly accelerating the hydration kinetics. XRD analysis confirmed a 22% reduction in the portlandite content, validating a robust pozzolanic-nucleation mechanism. Furthermore, rheological modeling showed an increased yield stress (up to 31.2 Pa), consistent with a dense, interconnected percolation network. The observed 61% early-age strength increase conceptually enables clinker substitution strategies; the associated environmental benefits—including potential reductions in the carbon footprint of cementitious systems—warrant future quantification through life-cycle assessment (LCA), which is beyond the scope of the present work. These results demonstrate that tailored sol–gel synthesis provides a high-efficiency pathway for the development of eco-efficient, high-performance cementitious materials. Full article

2-Ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) is among the most widely adopted organic UVB filters in commercial sunscreens. Nevertheless, its practical application potential is limited by unfavorable formulation compatibility and safety risks stemming from systemic exposure after topical administration. In this study, an oil-continuous structured gel matrix consisting of EHMC, disteardimonium hectorite (DDH) and dextrin palmitate (DP) was constructed to enhance UVB photoprotection and modulate the plasma exposure profile of EHMC following topical application. Comprehensive characterizations including rheology, XRD, Raman spectroscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, TGA and SEM collectively revealed that the combined incorporation of DDH and DP facilitates matrix structural rearrangement, enables EHMC to bind within the structured network, and promotes the formation of more intact continuous surface films. In vitro SPF assays demonstrated that the finished topical formulation SC-4 delivered superior UVB blocking efficacy compared with the EHMC-only control SC-1; furthermore, SC-4 exhibited improved short-term physical stability under the preset thermal and centrifugal acceleration test conditions. Follow-up skin safety assessments, mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) and pharmacokinetic assays verified that SC-4 elicited no remarkable acute skin irritation across all experimental conditions. Relative to SC-1, the reference formulation with EHMC as the sole UV filter, SC-4 displayed weaker EHMC-related distribution signals in skin tissues, accompanied by lower early plasma EHMC concentrations and a slightly lower AUC_0–48h trend. Collectively, these findings indicate that DDH/DP co-assembly serves as a viable matrix-structuring strategy to modulate EHMC-related skin distribution and early plasma exposure. Further research into UVA blocking performance, photostability, skin retention and transdermal permeation profiles, as well as long-term storage stability, is required to advance the development of broad-spectrum sunscreen formulations built on this novel matrix platform. Full article

The aim of this study was to evaluate the possibility of using rapeseed protein–fiber concentrate (RPFC) as a functional ingredient for wheat pasta fortification, with emphasis on dough rheology, gel-like network formation, microstructure, and cooking quality. For this purpose, five formulations of rigatoni pasta were produced by partially substituting wheat flour with 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% RPFC. Dough rheological behavior was assessed by frequency sweep and creep–recovery tests, while mixing and pasting behavior was evaluated using the Mixolab device. Microstructure was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and pasta technological and chemical parameters were determined using standard methods. All dough systems exhibited viscoelastic, gel-like behavior characterized by the dominance of the storage modulus (G’) over the loss modulus (G”), confirming the formation of a structured gluten-based network. Moderate RPFC incorporation (5–15%) enhanced G′, indicating reinforcement of the continuous protein–starch gel matrix and improved structural integrity and deformation resistance. Mixolab results showed a significant increase in water absorption and dough stability with RPFC addition, reflecting improved hydration and strengthening of the gel-forming protein network. SEM observations confirmed the development of a more compact and continuous starch–protein gel system, associated with reduced stickiness and improved structural cohesion. However, higher RPFC levels (15–20%) disrupted the continuity of the gel network, leading to increased cooking losses (8.8–10.4%), higher fracturability, and reduced firmness of cooked pasta. According to the data obtained, RPFC represents a promising functional protein ingredient for gel-like food systems such as cereal-based products, particularly pasta. These findings offer feasible formulation strategies and support its use as a sustainable, high-quality plant protein ingredient in pasta production. Full article