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Demosponges are modular filter-feeding organisms that are made up of aquiferous units or modules with one osculum per module. Such modules may grow to reach a maximal size. Various demosponge species show a high degree of morphological complexity, which makes it difficult to classify and scale them regarding filtration rate versus sponge size. In this regard, we distinguish between: (i) small single-osculum sponges consisting of one aquiferous module, which includes very small explants and larger explants; (ii) multi-oscula sponges consisting of many modules, each with a separate osculum leading to the ambient; and (iii) large single-osculum sponges composed of many aquiferous modules, each with an exhalant opening (true osculum) leading into a common large spongocoel (atrium), which opens to the ambient via a static pseudo-osculum. We found the theoretical scaling relation between the filtration rate (F) versus volume (V) for (i) a single-osculum demosponge to be F = a₃V^2/3, and hence the volume-specific filtration rate to scale as F/V ≈ V^−1/3. This relation is partly supported by experimental data for explants of Halichondria panicea, showing F/V = 2.66V^−0.41. However, for multi-oscula sponges, many of their modules may have reached their maximal size and hence their maximal filtration rate, which would imply the scaling F/V ≈ constant. A similar scaling would be expected for large pseudo-osculum sponges, provided their volume was taken to be the structural tissue volume that holds the pumping units, and not the total volume that includes the large atrium volume of water. This may explain the hitherto confusing picture that has emerged from the power-law correlation (F/V = aV^b) of many various types of demosponges that show a range of negative b-exponents. The observed sharp decline in the volume-specific filtration rate of demosponges from their very small to larger sizes is discussed. Full article

Filter-feeding sponges pump large amounts of water and contribute significantly to grazing impact, matter transport and nutrient cycling in many marine benthic communities. For ecological studies it is therefore of interest to be able to estimate the pumping rate of different species from their volume size or osculum cross-sectional area by means of experimentally determined allometric correlations. To help understand allometric data correlations and observed large variations of volume-specific pumping rate among species we developed a model that determines the pumping rate as a function of the size (volume) of a tubular-type demosponge described by 4 geometric length scales. The model relies on a choanocyte-pump model and standard pressure loss relations for flow through the aquiferous system, and density and pumping rate per choanocyte is assumed to be constant. By selecting different possibilities for increase of the length scales, which may also simulate different growth forms, we demonstrate that the model can imitate the experimental allometric correlations. It is concluded that the observed dependence of pumping rate on size is primarily governed by the hydraulics of pump performance and pressure losses of the aquiferous system rather than, e.g., decreasing density of choanocytes with increasing sponge size. Full article

To support the successful application of sponges for water purification and collagen production, we evaluated the effect of depth on sponge morphology, growth, physiology, and functioning. Specimens of Eastern Mediterranean populations of the sponge Chondrosia reniformis (Nardo, 1847) (Demospongiae, Chondrosiida, Chondrosiidae) were reciprocally transplanted between 5 and 20 m depth within the Kaş-Kekova Marine Reserve Area. Control sponges at 5 m had fewer but larger oscula than their conspecifics at 20 m, and a significant inverse relationship between the osculum density and size was found in C. reniformis specimens growing along a natural depth gradient. Sponges transplanted from 20 to 5 m altered their morphology to match the 5 m control sponges, producing fewer but larger oscula, whereas explants transplanted from 5 to 20 m did not show a reciprocal morphological plasticity. Despite the changes in morphology, the clearance, respiration, and growth rates were comparable among all the experimental groups. This indicates that depth-induced morphological changes do not affect the overall performance of the sponges. Hence, the potential for the growth and bioremediation of C. reniformis in mariculture is not likely to change with varying culture depth. The collagen content, however, was higher in shallow water C. reniformis compared to deeper-growing sponges, which requires further study to optimize collagen production. Full article