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Search Results (361)

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Keywords = nanofiltration process

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15 pages, 2424 KiB  
Article
Cyanuric Chloride with the s-Triazine Ring Fabricated by Interfacial Polymerization for Acid-Resistant Nanofiltration
by Zhuangzhuang Tian, Yun Yin, Jiandong Wang, Xiuling Ao, Daijun Liu, Yang Jin, Jun Li and Jianjun Chen
Membranes 2025, 15(8), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15080231 (registering DOI) - 1 Aug 2025
Abstract
Nanofiltration (NF) is considered a competitive purification method for acidic stream treatments. However, conventional thin-film composite NF membranes degrade under acid exposures, limiting their applications in industrial acid treatment. For example, wet-process phosphoric acid contains impurities of multivalent metal ions, but NF membrane [...] Read more.
Nanofiltration (NF) is considered a competitive purification method for acidic stream treatments. However, conventional thin-film composite NF membranes degrade under acid exposures, limiting their applications in industrial acid treatment. For example, wet-process phosphoric acid contains impurities of multivalent metal ions, but NF membrane technologies for impurity removal under harsh conditions are still immature. In this work, we develop a novel strategy of acid-resistant nanofiltration membranes based on interfacial polymerization (IP) of polyethyleneimine (PEI) and cyanuric chloride (CC) with the s-triazine ring. The IP process was optimized by orthogonal experiments to obtain positively charged PEI-CC membranes with a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of 337 Da. We further applied it to the approximate industrial phosphoric acid purification condition. In the tests using a mixed solution containing 20 wt% P2O5, 2 g/L Fe3+, 2 g/L Al3+, and 2 g/L Mg2+ at 0.7 MPa and 25 °C, the NF membrane achieved 56% rejection of Fe, Al, and Mg and over 97% permeation of phosphorus. In addition, the PEI-CC membrane exhibited excellent acid resistance in the 48 h dynamic acid permeation experiment. The simple fabrication procedure of PEI-CC membrane has excellent acid resistance and great potential for industrial applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanofiltration Membranes for Precise Separation)
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23 pages, 4900 KiB  
Article
Degradation of Glyphosate in Water by Electro-Oxidation on Magneli Phase: Application to a Nanofiltration Concentrate
by Wiyao Maturin Awesso, Ibrahim Tchakala, Sophie Tingry, Geoffroy Lesage, Julie Mendret, Akpénè Amenuvevega Dougna, Eddy Petit, Valérie Bonniol, Mande Seyf-Laye Alfa-Sika and Marc Cretin
Molecules 2025, 30(15), 3153; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30153153 - 28 Jul 2025
Viewed by 225
Abstract
This study evaluates the efficiency of sub-stoichiometric Ti4O7 titanium oxide anodes for the electrochemical degradation of glyphosate, a persistent herbicide classified as a probable carcinogen by the World Health Organization. After optimizing the process operating parameters (pH and current density), [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the efficiency of sub-stoichiometric Ti4O7 titanium oxide anodes for the electrochemical degradation of glyphosate, a persistent herbicide classified as a probable carcinogen by the World Health Organization. After optimizing the process operating parameters (pH and current density), the mineralization efficiency and fate of degradation by-products of the treated solution were determined using a total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer and HPLC/MS, respectively. The results showed that at pH = 3, glyphosate degradation and mineralization are enhanced by the increased generation of hydroxyl radicals (OH) at the anode surface. A current density of 14 mA cm2 enables complete glyphosate removal with 77.8% mineralization. Compared with boron-doped diamond (BDD), Ti4O7 shows close performance for treatment of a concentrated glyphosate solution (0.41 mM), obtained after nanofiltration of a synthetic ionic solution (0.1 mM glyphosate), carried out using an NF-270 membrane at a conversion rate (Y) of 80%. At 10 mA cm2 for 8 h, Ti4O7 achieved 81.3% mineralization with an energy consumption of 6.09 kWh g1 TOC, compared with 90.5% for BDD at 5.48 kWh g1 TOC. Despite a slight yield gap, Ti4O7 demonstrates notable efficiency under demanding conditions, suggesting its potential as a cost-effective alternative to BDD for glyphosate electro-oxidation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) in Treating Organic Pollutants)
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43 pages, 1282 KiB  
Review
Process Intensification Strategies for Esterification: Kinetic Modeling, Reactor Design, and Sustainable Applications
by Kim Leonie Hoff and Matthias Eisenacher
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(15), 7214; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26157214 - 25 Jul 2025
Viewed by 571
Abstract
Esterification is a key transformation in the production of lubricants, pharmaceuticals, and fine chemicals. Conventional processes employing homogeneous acid catalysts suffer from limitations such as corrosive byproducts, energy-intensive separation, and poor catalyst reusability. This review provides a comprehensive overview of heterogeneous catalytic systems, [...] Read more.
Esterification is a key transformation in the production of lubricants, pharmaceuticals, and fine chemicals. Conventional processes employing homogeneous acid catalysts suffer from limitations such as corrosive byproducts, energy-intensive separation, and poor catalyst reusability. This review provides a comprehensive overview of heterogeneous catalytic systems, including ion exchange resins, zeolites, metal oxides, mesoporous materials, and others, for improved ester synthesis. Recent advances in membrane-integrated reactors, such as pervaporation and nanofiltration, which enable continuous water removal, shifting equilibrium and increasing conversion under milder conditions, are reviewed. Dual-functional membranes that combine catalytic activity with selective separation further enhance process efficiency and reduce energy consumption. Enzymatic systems using immobilized lipases present additional opportunities for mild and selective reactions. Future directions emphasize the integration of pervaporation membranes, hybrid catalyst systems combining biocatalysts and metals, and real-time optimization through artificial intelligence. Modular plug-and-play reactor designs are identified as a promising approach to flexible, scalable, and sustainable esterification. Overall, the interaction of catalyst development, membrane technology, and digital process control offers a transformative platform for next-generation ester synthesis aligned with green chemistry and industrial scalability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biochemistry)
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19 pages, 7169 KiB  
Article
Modelling Caffeine and Paracetamol Removal from Synthetic Wastewater Using Nanofiltration Membranes: A Comparative Study of Artificial Neural Networks and Response Surface Methodology
by Nkechi Ezeogu, Petr Mikulášek, Chijioke Elijah Onu, Obinna Anike and Jiří Cuhorka
Membranes 2025, 15(8), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15080222 - 24 Jul 2025
Viewed by 246
Abstract
The integration of computational intelligence techniques into pharmaceutical wastewater treatment offers promising opportunities to improve process efficiency and minimize operational costs. This study compares the predictive capabilities of Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) models in forecasting the rejection efficiencies [...] Read more.
The integration of computational intelligence techniques into pharmaceutical wastewater treatment offers promising opportunities to improve process efficiency and minimize operational costs. This study compares the predictive capabilities of Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) models in forecasting the rejection efficiencies of caffeine and paracetamol using AFC 40 and AFC 80 nanofiltration (NF) membranes. Experiments were conducted under varying operating conditions, including transmembrane pressure, feed concentration, and flow rate. The predictive performance of both models was evaluated using statistical metrics such as the Coefficient of Determination (R2), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Marquardt’s Percentage Squared Error Deviation (MPSED), Hybrid fractional error function (HYBRID), and Average Absolute Deviation (AAD). Both models demonstrated strong predictive accuracy, with R2 values of 0.9867 and 0.9832 for RSM and ANN, respectively, in AFC 40 membranes, and 0.9769 and 0.9922 in AFC 80 membranes. While both approaches closely matched the experimental results, the ANN model consistently yielded lower error values and higher R2 values, indicating superior predictive performance. These findings support the application of ANNs as a robust modelling tool in optimizing NF membrane processes for pharmaceutical removal. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Membranes and Membrane Technologies for Wastewater Treatment)
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14 pages, 405 KiB  
Review
A Mini Review of Reused End-of-Life Reverse Osmosis (EoL RO) Membranes
by Anissa Somrani, Kholoud Abohelal and Maxime Pontié
Membranes 2025, 15(7), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070217 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 395
Abstract
As sensitive parts of the water treatment process, reverse osmosis (RO) membranes are the most important for desalination and wastewater treatment. But the performance of RO membranes deteriorates over time due to fouling, necessitating frequent replacements. One of the environmental challenges is the [...] Read more.
As sensitive parts of the water treatment process, reverse osmosis (RO) membranes are the most important for desalination and wastewater treatment. But the performance of RO membranes deteriorates over time due to fouling, necessitating frequent replacements. One of the environmental challenges is the disposal of End-of-Life (EoL) RO membranes, which are made of non-biodegradable polymers. The reuse of EoL membranes as a sustainable approach for waste saving and resource efficiency has recently attracted considerable attention. The present work provides a comprehensive overview of the strategies for reusing EoL RO membranes as sustainable alternatives to conventional disposal methods. Furthermore, the fundamental principles of RO technology, the primary types and impacts of membrane fouling, and advanced cleaning and regeneration techniques are discussed. The conversion of EoL membranes into nanofiltration (NF), ultrafiltration (UF), and forward osmosis (FO) membranes is also covered in this review, as well as their uses in brackish water desalination, dye/salt separation, groundwater treatment, and household wastewater reuse. Environmental and economic benefits, as well as technical, social, and regulatory challenges, are also discussed. Finally, the review highlights innovative approaches and future directions for incorporating EoL membrane reuse into circular economy models, outlining its potential to improve sustainability and reduce operational costs in water treatment systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Membrane Applications for Water Treatment)
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46 pages, 1588 KiB  
Review
Advancements in Organic Solvent Nanofiltration: The Critical Role of Polyamide Membranes in Sustainable Industrial Applications
by Shivshankar Chaudhari, Sunilesh Chakravarty, YoungHo Cho, JinWon Seo, MinYoung Shon and SeungEun Nam
Processes 2025, 13(7), 2212; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072212 - 10 Jul 2025
Viewed by 497
Abstract
Organic solvent nanofiltration (OSN) has emerged as a transformative platform for molecular separation, offering energy-efficient and high-performance alternatives to conventional separation techniques across the food, petrochemical, and pharmaceutical industries. At the core of this advancement lie polyamide membranes, whose exceptional chemical resilience, tunable [...] Read more.
Organic solvent nanofiltration (OSN) has emerged as a transformative platform for molecular separation, offering energy-efficient and high-performance alternatives to conventional separation techniques across the food, petrochemical, and pharmaceutical industries. At the core of this advancement lie polyamide membranes, whose exceptional chemical resilience, tunable architecture, and compatibility with a wide range of organic solvents have positioned them as the material of choice for industrial OSN applications. Recent progress encompassing nanostructured additives, controlled interfacial polymerization, and advanced crosslinking strategies has led to significant improvements in membrane selectivity, permeability, and operational stability. As OSN continues to gain traction in sustainable chemical processing, enabling reductions in both energy consumption and environmental waste, ongoing challenges such as membrane fouling, structural degradation, and limited solvent resistance remain critical barriers to broader adoption. This review critically examines the role of polyamide membranes in OSN, emphasizing their structural versatility, physicochemical attributes, and capacity to meet the growing demands of sustainable separation technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)
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19 pages, 1240 KiB  
Article
Extending the Recovery Ratio of Brackish Water Desalination to Zero Liquid Discharge (>95%) Through Combination of Nanofiltration, 2-Stage Reverse-Osmosis, Silica Precipitation, and Mechanical Vapor Recompression
by Paz Nativ, Raz Ben-Asher, Yaron Aviezer and Ori Lahav
ChemEngineering 2025, 9(4), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/chemengineering9040070 - 3 Jul 2025
Viewed by 396
Abstract
Extending the recovery ratio (RR) of brackish water reverse osmosis (RO) plants to zero liquid discharge (ZLD, i.e., ≥95%) is vital, particularly inland, where the cost of safe retentate disposal is substantial. Various suggestions appear in the literature; however, many of these are [...] Read more.
Extending the recovery ratio (RR) of brackish water reverse osmosis (RO) plants to zero liquid discharge (ZLD, i.e., ≥95%) is vital, particularly inland, where the cost of safe retentate disposal is substantial. Various suggestions appear in the literature; however, many of these are impractical in the real world. Often, the limiting parameter that determines the maximal recovery is the SiO2 concentration that develops in the RO retentate and the need to further desalinate the high osmotic pressure retentates produced in the process. This work combines well-proven treatment schemes to attain RR ≥ 95% at a realistic cost. The raw brackish water undergoes first a 94% recovery nanofiltration (NF) step, whose permeate undergoes a further 88-RR RO step. To increase the overall RR, the retentate of the 1st RO step undergoes SiO2 removal performed via iron electro-dissolution and then a 2nd, 43% recovery, RO pass. The retentate of this step is combined with the NF retentate, and the mix is treated with mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) (RR = 62.7%). The results show that >95% recovery can be attained by the suggested process at an overall cost of ~USD 0.70/m3. This is ~60% higher than the USD 0.44/m3 calculated for the baseline operation (RR = 82.7%), making the concept feasible when either the increase in the plant’s capacity is regulatorily requested, or when the available retentate discharge method is very costly. The cost assessment accuracy was approximated at >80%. Full article
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28 pages, 3292 KiB  
Article
Optimization of the Quality of Reclaimed Water from Urban Wastewater Treatment in Arid Region: A Zero Liquid Discharge Pilot Study Using Membrane and Thermal Technologies
by Maria Avramidi, Constantinos Loizou, Maria Kyriazi, Dimitris Malamis, Katerina Kalli, Angelos Hadjicharalambous and Constantina Kollia
Membranes 2025, 15(7), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070199 - 1 Jul 2025
Viewed by 666
Abstract
With water availability being one of the world’s major challenges, this study aims to propose a Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) system for treating saline effluents from an urban wastewater treatment plant (UWWTP), thereby supplementing into the existing water cycle. The system, which employs [...] Read more.
With water availability being one of the world’s major challenges, this study aims to propose a Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) system for treating saline effluents from an urban wastewater treatment plant (UWWTP), thereby supplementing into the existing water cycle. The system, which employs membrane (nanofiltration and reverse osmosis) and thermal technologies (multi-effect distillation evaporator and vacuum crystallizer), has been installed and operated in Cyprus at Larnaca’s WWTP, for the desalination of the tertiary treated water, producing high-quality reclaimed water. The nanofiltration (NF) unit at the plant operated with an inflow concentration ranging from 2500 to 3000 ppm. The performance of the installed NF90-4040 membranes was evaluated based on permeability and flux. Among two NF operation series, the second—operating at 75–85% recovery and 2500 mg/L TDS—showed improved membrane performance, with stable permeability (7.32 × 10−10 to 7.77 × 10−10 m·s−1·Pa−1) and flux (6.34 × 10−4 to 6.67 × 10−4 m/s). The optimal NF operating rate was 75% recovery, which achieved high divalent ion rejection (more than 99.5%). The reverse osmosis (RO) unit operated in a two-pass configuration, achieving water recoveries of 90–94% in the first pass and 76–84% in the second. This setup resulted in high rejection rates of approximately 99.99% for all major ions (Cl, Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+), reducing the permeate total dissolved solids (TDS) to below 35 mg/L. The installed multi-effect distillation (MED) unit operated under vacuum and under various inflow and steady-state conditions, achieving over 60% water recovery and producing high-quality distillate water (TDS < 12 mg/L). The vacuum crystallizer (VC) further concentrated the MED concentrate stream (MEDC) and the NF concentrate stream (NFC) flows, resulting in distilled water and recovered salts. The MEDC process produced salts with a purity of up to 81% NaCl., while the NFC stream produced mixed salts containing approximately 46% calcium salts (mainly as sulfates and chlorides), 13% magnesium salts (mainly as sulfates and chlorides), and 38% sodium salts. Overall, the ZLD system consumed 12 kWh/m3, with thermal units accounting for around 86% of this usage. The RO unit proved to be the most energy-efficient component, contributing 71% of the total water recovery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Membrane Distillation in Water Treatment and Reuse)
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28 pages, 6673 KiB  
Article
Valorization of Anaerobic Liquid Digestates Through Membrane Processing and Struvite Recovery—The Case of Dairy Effluents
by Anthoula C. Karanasiou, Charikleia K. Tsaridou, Dimitrios C. Sioutopoulos, Christos Tzioumaklis, Nikolaos Patsikas, Sotiris I. Patsios, Konstantinos V. Plakas and Anastasios J. Karabelas
Membranes 2025, 15(7), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15070189 - 24 Jun 2025
Viewed by 625
Abstract
An integrated process scheme is developed for valorizing filtered liquid digestates (FLD) from an industrial anaerobic digestion (AD) plant treating dairy-processing effluents with relatively low nutrient concentrations. The process scheme involves FLD treatment by nanofiltration (NF) membranes, followed by struvite recovery from the [...] Read more.
An integrated process scheme is developed for valorizing filtered liquid digestates (FLD) from an industrial anaerobic digestion (AD) plant treating dairy-processing effluents with relatively low nutrient concentrations. The process scheme involves FLD treatment by nanofiltration (NF) membranes, followed by struvite recovery from the NF-retentate. An NF pilot unit (designed for this purpose) is combined with a state-of-the-art NF/RO process simulator. Validation of simulator results with pilot data enables reliable predictions required for scaling up NF systems. The NF permeate meets the standards for restricted irrigation and/or reuse. Considering the significant nutrient concentrations in the NF retentate (i.e., ~500 mg/L NH4-N, ~230 mg/L PO4-P), struvite recovery/precipitation is investigated, including determination of near-optimal processing conditions. Maximum removal of nutrients, through production of struvite-rich precipitate, is obtained at a molar ratio of NH4:Mg:PO4 = 1:1.5:1.5 and pH = 10 in the treated stream, attained through the addition of Κ2HPO4, ΜgCl2·6H2O, and NaOH. Furthermore, almost complete struvite precipitation is achieved within ~30 min, whereas precipitate/solid drying at modest/ambient temperature is appropriate to avoid struvite degradation. Under the aforementioned conditions, a significant amount of dry precipitate is obtained, i.e., ~12 g dry mass per L of treated retentate, including crystalline struvite. The approach taken and the obtained positive results provide a firm basis for further development of this integrated process scheme towards sustainable large-scale applications. Full article
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14 pages, 2916 KiB  
Article
Investigation of the Electrodialysis of Sodium Tungstate Solutions for the Production of Tungstic Acid
by Adelya Dauletbakova, Bolotpay Baimbetov, Yeleussiz Tazhiyev and Gulnara Moldabayeva
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(13), 7033; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137033 - 22 Jun 2025
Viewed by 592
Abstract
Industrial technologies for processing tungsten concentrates using soda roasting or autoclave leaching are based on the production of alkaline sodium tungstate solutions that contain impurities such as silicon, phosphorus, arsenic, and others. The purification of these solutions from impurities requires the neutralization of [...] Read more.
Industrial technologies for processing tungsten concentrates using soda roasting or autoclave leaching are based on the production of alkaline sodium tungstate solutions that contain impurities such as silicon, phosphorus, arsenic, and others. The purification of these solutions from impurities requires the neutralization of excess soda or alkali with inorganic acids, which leads to the formation of chloride and sulfate effluents that are subsequently discharged into waste repositories. An analysis was carried out on existing methods for the production and processing of sodium tungstate solutions using HNO3 and NH3, as well as extraction and sorption techniques involving anion exchange resins. Currently, processes such as nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, and electrodialysis are being applied for water purification and the treatment of sulfate and chloride effluents. These processes employ various types of industrially manufactured membranes. For the purpose of electrodialysis, a two-compartment electrodialyzer setup was employed using cation-exchange membranes of the MK-40 (Russia) and EDC1R (China) types. The composition and structure of sodium tungstate, used as the starting reagents, were analyzed. Based on experiments conducted on a laboratory-scale unit with continuous circulation of the catholyte and anolyte, dependencies of various parameters on current density and process duration were established. Stepwise changes in the anolyte pH were recorded, indirectly confirming changes in the composition of the Na2WO4 solution, including the formation of polytungstates of variable composition and the production of H2WO4 via electrodialysis at pH < 2. The resulting tungstic acid solutions were also analyzed. The conducted studies on the processing of sodium tungstate solutions using electrodialysis made it possible to obtain alkaline solutions and tungstic acid at a current density of 500–1500 A/m2, without the use of acid for neutralization. Yellow tungstic acid was obtained from the tungstic acid solution by evaporation. Full article
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16 pages, 3991 KiB  
Article
Application of Industrial NF and RO Membranes in Separation of Post-Fermentation Solutions: Preliminary Study
by Wirginia Tomczak, Marek Gryta, Sławomir Żak and Monika Daniluk
Materials 2025, 18(12), 2779; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18122779 - 12 Jun 2025
Viewed by 352
Abstract
The focus of this work was to perform a preliminary study on the suitability of commercially available nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes for the separation of 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PD) post-fermentation solutions. The experiments were conducted with the use of AFC30 and AFC99 [...] Read more.
The focus of this work was to perform a preliminary study on the suitability of commercially available nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes for the separation of 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PD) post-fermentation solutions. The experiments were conducted with the use of AFC30 and AFC99 (PCI Membrane System Inc., Milford, OH, USA) as well as BW30 membranes (Dow FilmTec Co., Midland, MI, USA) and various feed solutions: selected compounds of fermentation broths, and synthetic and real fermentation broths. Firstly, it was found that for pure water, the AFC30 membrane was characterized by the highest performance. It clearly indicated that the membrane is the most open membrane and is characterized by a more porous structure. In turn, the lowest flux was noted for the AFC99 membrane. Studies performed with the use of synthetic broth found that for the BW30 membrane, the order in which the rejection coefficient (R) was obtained was glycerol~lactic acid > 1,3-propanediol > acetic acid. It clearly confirmed that the R increased with the molecular weight (MW) of the solution compounds. With regard to ions, it was found that SO42− and PO43− is characterized by higher R than Cl and NO3 ions. Multivalent ions are characterized by higher charge density, hydrated radius, hydration energy and MW. Finally, experiments performed with the use of the AFC30 membrane and real broths showed that the membrane ensured almost complete separation of 1,3-PD. With regard to organic acid, the separation performance was as follows: succinic acid > lactic acid > butyric acid > acetic acid > formic acid. It has been documented that the AFC30 membrane can be successfully used to concentrate the following ions: SO42−, PO43−, NO3 and Na+. Hence, most of the medium used for the fermentation process was retained by the membrane and may be reused, which is crucial for the scaling up of the process and reducing the total technology cost. With regard to the obtained permeate, it can be subsequently purified by other methods, such as distillation or ion exchange. For further development of the tested process, determining the retention degree for 1,3-PD and other solutes during long-term separation of real broth is necessary. Full article
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12 pages, 3292 KiB  
Article
The Charged Superhydrophilic Polyelectrolyte/TiO2 Nanofiltration Membrane for Self-Cleaning and Separation Performance
by Weiliang Gu, Lei Han, Ye Li, Jiayi Wang, Haihong Yan, Zhenping Qin and Hongxia Guo
Membranes 2025, 15(6), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15060179 - 12 Jun 2025
Viewed by 653
Abstract
Nanofiltration (NF) technology has extensive application in the treatment of wastewater generated in the dyeing industry. However, NF membranes often encounter fouling issues during the operation process. In this work, the superhydrophilic and self-cleaning multilayer nanofiltration membrane was prepared by self-assembling polyelectrolyte incorporating [...] Read more.
Nanofiltration (NF) technology has extensive application in the treatment of wastewater generated in the dyeing industry. However, NF membranes often encounter fouling issues during the operation process. In this work, the superhydrophilic and self-cleaning multilayer nanofiltration membrane was prepared by self-assembling polyelectrolyte incorporating the anatase PSS-TiO2 nanoparticles. The negatively charged PSS-TiO2 nanoparticles were beneficial to the formation of the nanohybrid selective layers via electrostatic interforce. The prepared (PEI/PSS-TiO2)4.0 hybrid membrane showed favorable photoinduced superhydrophilicity. The water contact angle of the membrane decreased with the UV irradiation from 35.7° to 1.6°. The negatively charged (PEI/PSS-TiO2)4.0 membrane exhibited a 100% rejection rate to XO and EbT, with a permeance flux of 5.2 and 6.4 L/(m2·h·bar), respectively. After UV irradiation for 60 min, the permeance flux could be further increased to 13.4 and 14.0 L/(m2·h·bar), and the rejection remained at 97.8% and 96.7%. Owing to the low content of TiO2 NPs photocatalytic effect under UV irradiation, the fabricated hybrid membrane exhibited a compromised permeance recovery of about 80.6%. Full article
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32 pages, 1458 KiB  
Review
A Review of Methods for the Removal of Endocrine-Disrupting Compounds with a Focus on Oestrogens and Pharmaceuticals Found in Wastewater
by Jolanta Latosińska and Agnieszka Grdulska
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 6514; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15126514 - 10 Jun 2025
Viewed by 657
Abstract
Steroid hormones are micropollutants that contaminate water worldwide and have significant impacts on human health and the environment, even at very low concentrations. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of technologies for the removal of endocrine-disrupting compounds with a [...] Read more.
Steroid hormones are micropollutants that contaminate water worldwide and have significant impacts on human health and the environment, even at very low concentrations. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of technologies for the removal of endocrine-disrupting compounds with a focus on oestrogens (estrone E1, 17β-oestradiol E2, estriol E3), the synthetic oestrogen (17α-ethinylestradiol EE2 and bisphenol A BPA), and pharmaceuticals found in wastewater. Hormonal and pharmaceutical contaminants are mostly persistent organic compounds that cannot be easily removed using conventional wastewater treatment processes. For this reason, researchers have tried to develop more efficient tertiary wastewater treatment technologies to reduce micropollutant concentrations in wastewater. This review covers the following processes: Advanced oxidation, nanofiltration, ultrasound, electro-Fenton processes, electrolysis, adsorption, ozonation, photolysis, photocatalysis, ultrafiltration, and electrocoagulation. Attention was paid to the effectiveness of the processes in terms of eliminating hormones and pharmaceuticals from wastewater, as well as on economic and environmental aspects. The combination of different processes can be a promising treatment scheme for retaining and degrading hormonal and pharmaceutical compounds from wastewater. With hybrid technologies, the advantages of the methods are combined to maximise the removal of pollutants. However, optimal methods of wastewater treatment depend on the quality and quantity of the wastewater, as well as the residual hormonal and pharmaceutical compounds and their hazardous effects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Treatment Technologies—3rd Edition)
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16 pages, 1649 KiB  
Article
Optimized Electrocoagulation Pre-Treatment for Fouling Reduction During Nanofiltration of Lake Water Containing Microcystin-LR
by Thomas McKean, Chidambaram Thamaraiselvan, Sarah Do and S. Ranil Wickramasinghe
Processes 2025, 13(6), 1741; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13061741 - 1 Jun 2025
Viewed by 526
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MCLR) is a toxin produced by harmful algal blooms that is emerging as a threat to drinking and recreational water systems worldwide. Nanofiltration (NF) is an effective technique for purifying contaminated water sources; however, membrane fouling caused by coexisting organic matter limits [...] Read more.
Microcystin-LR (MCLR) is a toxin produced by harmful algal blooms that is emerging as a threat to drinking and recreational water systems worldwide. Nanofiltration (NF) is an effective technique for purifying contaminated water sources; however, membrane fouling caused by coexisting organic matter limits the practicality of the process. This research studies the use of an electrocoagulation (EC) pretreatment to limit fouling during the NF process. Water for this study was taken from Lake Fayetteville, a local body of water where MCLR concentrations have been recorded to be >15 µg/L. EC was performed using polyaluminum chloride as a background electrolyte at various operating conditions. EC-treated water was then further treated with NF to assess the impact of the EC pretreatment on NF fouling. It was found that the larger particle size of the sludge produced using aluminum electrodes at pH 7 had the best combination of settling ability and organic carbon removal (92%). This also led to the smallest flux decline during six-hour NF experiments of just 9%. These results highlight the potential of an EC pretreatment as an antifouling technique for the NF treatment of water contaminated with algal toxins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processes Development for Wastewater Treatment)
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13 pages, 1631 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Catalytic Removal of N-Nitrosodimethylamine from Drinking Water Matrices with One-Step-Carbonized Ferric Ammonium Citrate
by Jing Lv, Lingyue Zhang, Jialu Li, Yuting Zhang, Ruofan Wang, Rui Tang, Jianchao Wang, Mei Hong and Na Liu
Nanomaterials 2025, 15(11), 831; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15110831 - 30 May 2025
Viewed by 414
Abstract
N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is a widely recognized disinfection by-product that poses significant carcinogenic risks in drinking water. Conventional methods for NDMA removal, such as nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes, have limited efficacy due to NDMA’s small molecular weight and polar properties. Advanced oxidation processes [...] Read more.
N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is a widely recognized disinfection by-product that poses significant carcinogenic risks in drinking water. Conventional methods for NDMA removal, such as nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes, have limited efficacy due to NDMA’s small molecular weight and polar properties. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have shown promise, but traditional Fenton processes often fall short due to the chemical structure of nitrosamines in NDMA. This study proposes a novel, cost-effective approach using a one-step carbonization method to synthesize a catalyst from ferric ammonium citrate (FAC). The resulting FAC-600 integrates zero-valent iron and iron carbide with carbon-based functional groups, enhancing catalytic and electron transport activities. Our experiments demonstrated that the FAC-600/persulfate (PS) AOP system achieves over 90% NDMA removal across a wide concentration range (50 μg L−1 to 1000 μg L −1) with a limited dosage of 0.5 g L−1. Mechanistic insights revealed that superoxide and hydroxyl radicals dominate NDMA degradation, facilitated by the presence of dissolved oxygen and PS. This study underscores the potential of the FAC-600/PS AOP system as a robust and efficient solution for NDMA removal, promising safer drinking water through practical application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanoscale Material Catalysis for Environmental Protection)
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