Search Results (20)

Therapeutic programs involving human–horse interactions are gaining popularity as a means of enhancing human well-being. Understanding the physiological responses of both humans and horses during these interactions is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of such programs. This study examined the effects of specific interactive activities on both humans and horses by monitoring changes in oxytocin and cortisol levels. Six participants and six horses took part in the study. The participants engaged in three distinct activities, each lasting 15 min: (1) resting alone without the horse (resting), (2) standing near the horse without physical contact (standing), and (3) gently rubbing the horse’s neck and withers (rubbing). Saliva samples from the participants and blood samples from the horses were collected at three time points for each activity: T0 (before the activity), T1 (at the end of the activity), and T2 (15 min after the activity ended). The results indicated that oxytocin levels significantly increased in horses at T2 following both the standing and rubbing activities, while cortisol levels remained unchanged in both humans and horses across all activities. These findings suggest that human–horse interactions, particularly standing and rubbing, may foster social bonding in horses without eliciting a stress response in either species. Full article

This paper challenges the prevalent characterization of domesticated horses as prey species that inherently view humans as predators. Drawing on evolutionary, ethological, and cognitive evidence, we propose the “mutualistic coevolution hypothesis”, which posits that horses and humans have evolved a partnership marked by cooperation rather than fear. We critically assess the “prey hypothesis”, emphasizing a predator–prey model, which dominates equine training and the literature, and we argue that it inadequately explains horses’ morphology, behaviors, and cognitive capacities. Comparative studies on horses’ socio-cognitive skills suggest that domestication has fostered emotional, behavioral, and cognitive adaptations supporting a human–horse bond. This review examines evidence from archaeological findings and experimental research on horses’ responsiveness to human gestures, emotions, and social cues, underscoring their complex cognition and capacity for collaboration. Furthermore, morphological and behavioral analyses reveal inconsistencies in using orbital orientation or predation-related traits as evidence for categorizing horses as prey species. By emphasizing the coevolutionary dynamics underlying human–horse interactions, we advocate for replacing traditional training models centered on fear and submission with approaches that leverage horses’ mutualistic and social nature. This perspective offers insights for enhancing horse welfare and improving human–equine relationships. Full article

This study investigates the multifunctional potential of horse oil fermented with barley nuruk, a traditional fermentation starter, focusing on its α-glucosidase inhibitory activity and bioactive applicability. Gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) revealed significant changes in fatty acid composition during fermentation, with oleic acid amide and palmitic acid amide remaining stable and stearic acid amide forming prominently by day 10. Molecular docking demonstrated that the amide structures play a key role in α-glucosidase inhibition through essential hydrogen bonding interactions. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) analysis showed a notable reduction in pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella enterica, and a dominance of Lactobacillus acidophilus (95.2%) by day 10. The α-glucosidase inhibitory activity increased progressively with fermentation, with the day 10 extract surpassing the synthetic inhibitor acarbose, highlighting its potential for diabetes management. A human skin primary irritation test confirmed the hypoallergenic nature of both hexane-extracted and fermented horse oil products, ensuring their safety for topical applications. In conclusion, fermented horse oil demonstrates significant α-glucosidase inhibitory activity and proven safety, positioning it as a promising natural resource for therapeutic and functional product development. Further studies are needed for clinical validation and commercialization in diabetes management and related applications. Full article

Five peptides were isolated from the venom of the Mexican scorpion Centruroides bonito by chromatographic procedures (molecular weight sieving, ion exchange columns, and HPLC) and were denoted Cbo1 to Cbo5. The first four peptides contain 66 amino acid residues and the last one contains 65 amino acids, stabilized by four disulfide bonds, with a molecular weight spanning from about 7.5 to 7.8 kDa. Four of them are toxic to mice, and their function on human Na⁺ channels expressed in HEK and CHO cells was verified. One of them (Cbo5) did not show any physiological effects. The ones toxic to mice showed that they are modifiers of the gating mechanism of the channels and belong to the beta type scorpion toxin (β-ScTx), affecting mainly the Nav1.6 channels. A phylogenetic tree analysis of their sequences confirmed the high degree of amino acid similarities with other known bona fide β-ScTx. The envenomation caused by this venom in mice is treated by using commercially horse antivenom available in Mexico. The potential neutralization of the toxic components was evaluated by means of surface plasmon resonance using four antibody fragments (10FG2, HV, LR, and 11F) which have been developed by our group. These antitoxins are antibody fragments of single-chain antibody type, expressed in E. coli and capable of recognizing Cbo1 to Cbo4 toxins to various degrees. Full article

Equine-assisted therapies are becoming increasingly popular for addressing physical and psychological disabilities in clients. The role of the horse’s welfare in equine-assisted service receives increasing attention in research. Several studies have shown that horses are able to perceive human emotions and respond to human stress responses. However, no research has yet looked at the other side of the coin—whether and how humans perceive and react to equine stress levels during equine-assisted services. To fill this gap in the research, we employed a within-subjects design, in which horse-naïve participants had a standardized interaction with both an experimentally stressed horse and an experimentally relaxed horse. We assessed physiological indicators of stress (heart rate, heart rate variability, and salivary cortisol) in participants and horses, as well as psychological indicators of stress (state anxiety and positive and negative affect) in participants. Although our stress and relaxation manipulations were successful (indicated by horses’ physiological indicators of stress), we did not find any difference in the participants’ physiological or psychological indicators of stress between the interaction with a stressed and the interaction with a relaxed horse. Together with results from previous studies, this suggests that humans cannot intuitively recognize the (physiological) stress level of horses, which has important implications for effective communication and bonding between humans and horses and for the safety of equine activities. Full article

Research investigating health benefits from household human–animal bonds has focused mostly on bonds with companion dogs, cats, and horses. Wellbeing benefits associated with other companion animal species such as birds, fish, and reptiles are described and anecdotally reported, but there is little empirical literature supporting this. The literature suggests that health benefits of companion animals are predicated on human perceptions of the animal rather than the animal’s species. Therefore, relationships with non-conventional companion animals of diverse species may benefit the health of their human guardians as do dogs, cats, and horses. This narrative review summarizes the current literature exploring perceived health benefits gained from non-conventional companion animals. Searches were conducted for published literature and grey literature up to October 2022 across PsycINFO and PubMed databases, and Newsbank media database for commercial media publications. Nineteen studies and 10 media articles were included in the review. Gaps in the literature include a lack of rigorous research to investigate the health benefits of non-conventional companion animals. Non-conventional companion animals may benefit their guardians by providing social support through acting as attachment figures, facilitating social opportunities and daily routines, fulfilling cognitive needs, and recreating restorative capacities of mindfully observing natural landscapes. Further high-quality research into the human-non-conventional companion animal bond is warranted. Full article

Communication within a species is essential for access to resources, alerting to dangers, group facilitation and social bonding; human facial expressions are considered to be an important factor in one’s ability to communicate with others. Evidence has shown that dogs and horses are able to distinguish positive and negative facial expressions by observing photographs of humans, however there is currently no research on how facial expressions from a live human are perceived by horses. This study investigated how ponies distinguish facial expressions presented by live actors. Trained actors (n = 2), using the human Facial Action Coding System, displayed four facial expressions (anger, sadness, joy and neutral) individually to twenty ponies. Heart rate and behaviors of the ponies including first monocular eye look, eye look duration (right and left side bias) and latency to approach were observed. A generalized linear mixed model (GLIMMIX) using Sidak’s multiple comparisons of least squared means determined that when exposed to anger expressions ponies looked more often with their left eye first and when exposed to joy, looked more often with their right eye first (p = 0.011). The ponies spent more time looking at angry expressions (p = 0.0003) in comparison to other expressions. There was no variation in heart rate across expressions (p > 0.89). Regardless of human facial expression, ponies looked longer (p = 0.0035), took longer to approach (p = 0.0297) and displayed more oral behaviours (p < 0.0001) with one actor than the other indicating increased arousal or negative valence. Ponies with more experience as a lesson mount had lower heart rates (p < 0.0001) carried their head lower (p < 0.0001), kept their left ear on the actor (p < 0.03) and exhibited more oral behaviours (p < 0.0001) than ponies with less experience. This study demonstrates that ponies are able to distinguish facial expressions presented by a live human, but other factors also contribute to their responses to humans. Full article

The attitude towards animals in research depends on both the role of the stakeholder and their personal characteristics. Most studies on the subject have been carried out on stakeholders from biomedical research institutes with comparatively few sociological studies on stakeholders from agricultural research centers. Previous findings suggest that animal caretakers at agricultural research centers felt undervalued by the hierarchy, and that animal reification was present in the sector. This may indicate that a lack of consideration for the animal subjects correlates with an inadequate sensitivity towards humans. Since these findings were published twenty years ago, there has been an increasing emphasis on the importance and actions of ethics committees in research, animal welfare bodies, and public concern for animals, which may have impacted the current perspective. To better understand current degrees of animal reification amongst stakeholders of agricultural research, we conducted semi-directive interviews at a leading agricultural research institute in France (INRAE). The interviews targeted both animal caretakers and researchers who were involved in the study of infectious diseases in livestock, or the behavior of horses and quails. After having transcribed the recorded interviews into text, semi-automatized analyses were carried out to categorize them into distinct groups, from which the most characteristic words and sentences were extracted. Three groups of stakeholders were identified: (i) animal caretakers involved in invasive infectious disease research; (ii) animal caretakers involved in behavioral research; and (iii) researchers. The findings show that animal caretakers felt acknowledged by their hierarchy. It is possible the increased skill criteria for people recruited into this position over the years, combined with greater prospects for continuous learning and development in the profession, may have fostered a more respectful regard across the hierarchy. The animal caretakers clearly expressed that their primary objective was to successfully execute the research protocols and that the animals were viewed as prototypes for research, with which they could, on occasion, develop a bond with. The bond was more important for animal caretakers involved in behavioral studies than for those involved in the study of infectious diseases, where invasive biological sampling and restraining of the animals is required. Researchers prioritized the procurement of robust data to test hypotheses, analyze phenomena, and publish their results. Their concern for the animals rather reflected the views of the general public opposed to thought-out personal opinions on the matter; this is possibly due to their comparatively limited interaction with the animals. They considered the animals in abstract terms that were indicative of reification. This study concludes that animal reification is still present, albeit to varying degrees amongst the stakeholders. Full article

Mammalian body odour conveys cues about an individual’s emotional state that can be recognised by conspecifics. Thus far, little attention has been paid to interspecific odour communication of emotions, and no studies have examined whether humans are able to recognise animal emotions from body odour. Thus, the aim of the present study was to address this question. Body odour samples were collected from 16 two-year-old thoroughbred horses in fear and non-fear situations, respectively. The horse odour samples were then assessed by 73 human odour raters. We found that humans, as a group, were able to correctly assign whether horse odour samples were collected under a fear- or a non-fear condition, respectively. Furthermore, they perceived the body odour of horses collected under the fear condition as more intense, compared with the non-fear condition. An open question remains, which is whether humans could simply distinguish between little versus much sweat and between high intensity versus low intensity or were able to recognise horses’ fear and non-fear emotions. These results appear to fit the notion that the ability to recognise emotions in other species may present an advantage to both the sender and the receiver of emotional cues, particularly in the interaction between humans and domesticated animals. To conclude, the present results indicate that olfaction might contribute to the human recognition of horse emotions. However, these results should be addressed with caution in light of the study’s limitations and only viewed as exploratory for future studies. Full article

Human–horse interactions (HHIs) are diverse and prominent in the equine industry. Stakeholders have an invested interest in making sure that HHIs are humane. Assessment of equine welfare goes beyond physical health and includes assessment of the emotional state of the animal. HHIs can have a permanent effect on human–horse relationships, thereby influencing welfare. Therefore, an understanding of the horse’s affective state during HHIs is necessary. A scoping review was conducted to: (1) map current practices related to the measurement of HHIs; (2) explore the known effects of HHIs on horse behaviour and physiology; and (3) clarify the connection between HHIs and equine welfare. A total of 45 articles were included in this review. Studies that used both physiological and behavioural measures of equine response to human interactions accounted for 42% of the included studies. A further 31% exclusively used physiological measures and 27% used behavioural observation. Current evidence of equine welfare during HHIs is minimal and largely based on the absence of a negative affective state during imposed interactions. Broadening the scope of methods to evaluate a positive affective state and standardization of methodology to assess these states would improve the overall understanding of the horse’s welfare during HHIs. Full article

Assisted living is a fast-growing living option for seniors who require residence-based activities for maintaining mental and physical health. Guided equine interactions may benefit seniors, so an on-site equine program was started at Hacienda at the River senior living community. For research purposes, twenty-four residents and associates, aged fifty-five or over, consented to physiological measurements before, during and after four guided sessions of stroking one of three horses for 10 min over 4–6 weeks. Heart rate variability (HRV) was measured simultaneously in humans and horses during interactions. We hypothesized that human heart rate (HR) and HRV would increase during stroking and HRV power would shift toward the very low frequency (VLF) range common in horses, indicative of healthy function. During stroking, human HR increased (p < 0.05) but HRV (SDRR) and %VLF of HRV power did not change. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP), an exploratory measure, significantly increased after stroking, consistent with arousal. Two horses showed no significant changes in HR or HRV, but one relaxed. Sixteen horse–human pairs demonstrated synchronized HRV peak frequencies during sessions, suggestive of social connection. Participants used more positive than negative words describing their experience during exit interviews (p < 0.05). These data show that horses animate seniors without causing emotional stress and provide opportunities for social bonding. Full article

While human benefits of animal-assisted therapy programs have been documented, relatively little research has been conducted on behavioral factors that predict a successful equine-assisted services (EAS) horse. This study compares the behavior of experienced and non-experienced EAS horses as well as horses selected for future EAS work in a series of sociability and temperament tests. No significant differences were found between experienced and non-experienced horses in the sociability measures or for most of the temperament tests; however, significant differences were found between groups in the brushing test, with non-experienced horses showing more affiliative behaviors towards the familiar handler and unfamiliar persons. No significant differences were found between selected and non-selected horses in the temperament tests. However, non-selected horses were found to show significantly more affiliative behaviors towards a familiar person during a sociability test compared with selected horses. These findings suggest that the social behavior and temperament of EAS horses may not be significantly different from other available horses not selected for EAS work. Instead, these decisions may primarily reflect subjective impressions of fit. Interestingly, on measures where significant differences were identified, the horses not actively engaged in or selected for therapy were the ones that showed greater affiliative responses to familiar and unfamiliar humans. Reasons for why this may be, as well as future directions in EAS selection, are discussed. Full article

The study investigated equine responses to novelty and handling, aiming to reveal whether horse–human relationships reflect criteria of an attachment bond. Twelve adult Standardbreds were subjected to a fear-eliciting test (novel objects presented close to two humans) and a handling test (being led passing novel objects) to study attachment-related behaviours and ease of handling. The tests were performed both before (pre-test) and after (post-test) horses had been trained by the same female handler (10 sessions of 15 min). Horses were assigned to three groups of four, each of which underwent different operant conditioning protocols: negative reinforcement (NR; pressure, release of lead, and whip tap signals) or combined NR with either positive reinforcement using food (PRf) or wither scratching (PRs). Results showed that neither familiarity of the person nor training method had a significant impact on the horses’ behavioural responses in the post-tests. However, horses showed decreased heart rates between pre- and post-tests, which may indicate habituation, an effect of training per se, or that the presence of the familiar trainer served to calm the horses during the challenging situations. There were large individual variations among the horses’ responses and further studies are needed to increase our understanding of horse–human relationships. Full article

Previous research has shown features of an attachment bond to be fulfilled in, for instance, human–dog dyads; however, there is a considerable lack of research on the potential attachment in human–horse relationships. Employing Bowlby’s criteria of an attachment bond and Pierce’s model of therapeutically powerful activity, this article studies whether short-term exposure to horses brings about elements of emerging attachment for adolescents and if this interaction holds potential in creating a favorable early-stage setting for professional care. It draws from group discussions carried out with nine 16–17-year-old adolescents who participated in an EASEL (Equine-Assisted Social and Emotional Learning) session when visiting a farm with a youth worker. A qualitative content analysis of the discussions revealed that some characteristics of the four principal criteria of an attachment bond—proximity maintenance, safe haven, secure base, and separation distress—were identifiable in the adolescents’ expressed experiences of observing and interacting with horses. Moreover, the three main sources of therapeutic power—appeal, accuracy, and intactness—intersected with the emerging development of the adolescents’ attachment to horses. Additionally, space for self-reflection was enhanced by the presence of the horses. The study offers insights into the potential of human–horse attachment in dealing with adolescents with and without special needs for various therapy and care purposes. Full article

Equine-assisted activities (EAA) for human well-being and health rely on human–horse interactions for therapeutic effect. At-risk participants with mental and emotional difficulties can show poor social skills and functioning relationships, potentially leading to unsuccessful human–horse interaction in EAA. This study addresses the effect of the attachment style (AS) of at-risk adolescents on horse physiology and behaviour during an equine-facilitated learning (EFL) program. Thirty-three adolescents participated in a 10-week EFL program with nine therapy horses (the same therapy horse per adolescent throughout the program). Adolescent AS was categorized into secure (n = 7), preoccupied (n = 11), dismissing (n = 1), or fearful (n = 12) using an Experiences in Close Relationships – Relationship Structure questionnaire. Horse heart rate (HR) and behaviour (affiliative and avoidance behaviours) in response to adolescents were recorded during grooming and riding. Over time, horses with fearful AS adolescents showed consistently more affiliative behaviours compared to those with preoccupied AS adolescents during grooming, and more constant HR and avoidance behaviours compared to those with secure AS adolescents during riding. These results suggest that a more predictable and less stressful physiological and behavioural response of therapy horses toward participants in EAA with emotional and behavioural difficulties can be mediated by a human insecure attachment style. Full article