Search Results (54)

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) and behavioral self-regulation (SR) are important for lifelong physical activity (PA). While physical literacy (PL) mediates child PA, its broader developmental impact in early childhood education (ECE) remains underexplored. The Active Start feasibility study examined a 10-week PL-based intervention’s effects on FMS (stationary, locomotion, object control), total motor competency and behavioral SR, as well as sex-based differences, among 3–5-year-olds in Somerville, Massachusetts childcare centers. Children (mean age = 3.8 years, 55% boys) were randomized by childcare center (two per condition) into intervention (n = 39) or control (n = 35) groups. Outcomes were measured at baseline and final using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales for FMS and motor competency and the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task for SR. Intervention effects were assessed using linear mixed-effects and zero-inflated mixed-effects hurdle models, with interactions examining sex-based differences in program effectiveness. Stationary skills had a net average improvement of 2.3 points in the intervention group compared to the control (p < 0.01). No significant treatment effects were observed for locomotor, object control, total motor competency or behavioral SR skills (p > 0.05). The treatment effects did not significantly differ by sex. PL-based ECE interventions may enhance stability skills in motor development, but further research in larger samples is needed to determine broader impacts on early childhood development. Full article

Objective: This systematic review examined whether siblings act as facilitators or barriers to children’s motor competence and physical fitness. Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, systematic searches were conducted in four databases (Web of Science, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and MEDLINE/PubMed) up to September 2025. Results: Seventeen studies (total n = 116,827) met eligibility criteria. Eleven studies were rated fair quality and the remainder poor. Twelve studies assessed motor competence, four assessed physical fitness, and one addressed both. Children with older siblings often showed better coordination and motor skills, whereas some evidence indicated earlier gross motor development in only children and no consistent differences in fine motor skills. The presence of younger siblings was associated with lower motor skill scores in infants, while older siblings were linked to higher scores. Across motor competence outcomes, the available evidence is concentrated in object control and fine/hand motor skills, with comparatively fewer data on locomotor and stability domains. Regarding physical fitness, siblings generally exerted a positive influence across several dimensions, but these findings are based on a small number of studies, and results for cardiorespiratory fitness are conflicting. Conclusions: Given the heterogeneity in ages and measurement tools, along with the predominance of methodological constraints, readers should interpret the findings with caution. In summary, the available evidence suggests that having siblings may be associated with higher motor competence and some aspects of physical fitness, yet the certainty of evidence is limited by heterogeneity (age ranges and measurement tools) and methodological constraints. Full article

Background/Objectives: The developmental gymnastics (DG) exercise programme is a specialised form of gymnastics that focuses on the physical, cognitive, and motor development of individuals, particularly children. This 36-week study aimed to investigate the effect of DG on the gross motor skills (GMS) of preschoolers. Methods: This randomised controlled trial included 300 preschool children (5.1 ± 0.83 years), of whom 220 completed the 36-week programme (EG = 99, CG = 121). The children were randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group following standard physical activities. Attrition was mainly due to illness or attendance below 80%. Analyses were adjusted for age and BMI to control for confounding variables. Children in the CG participated in three organised extracurricular physical activities per week. In contrast, those in the EG engaged in 60 min of the designated exercise programme twice a week. We employed the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) to evaluate gross motor skills (GMS). Results: The mixed ANCOVA models revealed that EG showed greater improvement in all locomotor skills tests compared with the CG, with mean differences in TGMD-2 total scores of +3.28 points (p = 0.0002, partial η² = 0.24). Effect sizes ranged from small to large (partial η² = 0.05–0.19; Cohen’s d = 0.6–1.4), indicating meaningful practical improvements in gross motor competence. In the combined sample, both groups demonstrated similar improvements in all tests of object control skills. However, gender-specific differences were observed in the improvement of underhand roll, stationary dribble performance, and the total score of object control skills. Girls in the CG showed more improvement in underhand roll performance than girls in the EG. In contrast, boys in the EG demonstrated greater improvements in stationary dribble performance (4%) and the total score for object control skills (3%) compared to boys in the CG. Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that the nine-month DG programme was associated with significant improvements in GMS in preschool children. These findings highlight the value of structured gymnastics as a sustainable component of preschool curricula. Trial Registration Number: NCT06315036. Full article

Background/Objectives: Vision plays a key role in acquiring and automating fundamental movement skills. Evidence from Italy is scarce. This study compared Test of Gross Motor Development–2 (TGMD-2) performance between Italian children with visual impairment (VI) and sighted peers and explored differences by degree of VI (severe VI vs. blindness). Methods: This was a cross-sectional study including 38 children (VI: n = 19, 5–12 y; sighted: n = 19, 5–11 y). VI was classified per the WHO criteria. TGMD-2 was administered with adaptations suitable for VI (e.g., high-contrast cones, auditory balls, verbal cueing). Group differences (VI vs. sighted; blindness vs. severe VI; severe VI vs. sighted) were analyzed with Mann–Whitney U (α = 0.05). For participants > 10 y, raw scores were analyzed and age-equivalent scores were summarized to calculate developmental gaps. Results: Children with VI scored lower than sighted peers on locomotor, object control, and total TGMD-2 scores (all p < 0.001). Within VI, blindness was associated with lower locomotor, object control, and total scores than severe VI (p = 0.013; p = 0.043; p = 0.013). Children with severe VI also scored lower than sighted peers across outcomes (all p < 0.001). Based on age-equivalent estimates, average gross motor performance in VI was ~4–5 years below chronological age; values < 3 years were set to 3 years for calculation (the floor effect). Conclusions: Italian children with VI show reduced gross motor competence compared with sighted peers, with a substantial developmental lag. Findings support early adapted physical education and structured movement opportunities to promote participation and inclusion. Future studies should examine long-term outcomes and contextual factors shaping motor competence in youth with VI. Full article

Strong competencies in actual motor competence (AMC) and perceived motor competence (PMC) support lifelong physical activity. However, assessing MC is time-consuming, requiring multiple AMC and PMC evaluations. Streamlining these assessments would improve efficiency at a national level. This study used machine learning (ML) classification to (1) identify AMC assessments that can be accurately predicted in an Irish context using other AMC and PMC assessments, and (2) examine prediction accuracy differences between genders. AMC was measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development (3rd Edition) and the Victorian Fundamental Motor Skills Manual, while PMC was assessed with the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence. Five ML classification models were trained and tested on an Irish MC dataset (n = 2098, mean age 9.2 ± 2.04) to predict distinct AMC assessment outcomes. The highest prediction accuracies (>85%) were found for the Catch (female and gender-combined subsets) and Bounce (male subset) AMC assessments. These assessments could potentially be removed from the current Irish testing battery for their respective gender groups. Our findings highlight the effectiveness of ML classification in optimising Irish MC assessment procedures, reducing redundancy, and enhancing efficiency. Full article

Background/Objectives: Global levels of physical activity are in decline, accompanied by low levels of competence in fundamental movement skills (FMSs) required to meaningfully participate in lifelong physical activity. This study aimed to explore the effects of an 8-week pilot program on the development of FMSs for children in a lower socioeconomic area through a game-based physical activity approach. Methods: Children (N = 30) were recruited from a lower socioeconomic area to participate in a community-offered PA program. This 8-week pilot program focused on game-based intervention, with weekly 1.5 h sessions to promote active play and development of FMSs. Each session was structured to ensure at least one FMS based on the Test of Gross Motor Development—Third Edition (TGMD-3) was emphasized to promote practice in these skills. The TGMD-3 was employed as a pre- and post-test measure of motor competence. Results: Children who completed both the pre- and post-test assessments (N = 11) demonstrated improvements in both locomotor (p = 0.166) and ball skill (p = 0.184) scores, though these were not significant. Additional analyses at baseline with all participants (N = 22; 8 not present at baseline testing) were insignificant, but descriptive statistics demonstrated that boys scored higher in ball skill scores, while girls scored higher in locomotor skill scores. Older children at baseline were found to score significantly higher than younger children in ball skill scores. Conclusion: The results highlighted that the game-based intervention did demonstrate some improvements for FMSs, highlighting a need for further development of the program and the participation of more children for more strongly powered analysis and to account for program withdrawal or dropout. Full article

Background: Active play has been proposed to complement school-based physical activity (PA) and promote increased movement-related activities relevant for the development of motor competence. Guided active play (GAP) paired with cooperative games provides sufficient moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) to improve motor competence for younger children. Whether guided active play exhibits physical activity outputs that are related to motor competence is uncertain. This study assessed the strength of relationships between play-based physical activity and movement skills by comparing linear regression and chi-square analyses. Methods: Forty-two children (Mage = 8.8 ± 0.8 years) participated in a community center program. PA was measured via accelerometry for GAP, alongside assessments of anthropometrics, fitness (leg power, strength, VO₂max), and FMS (Test of Gross Motor Development-2). Multiple linear regression analysis examined reciprocal relationships. Chi-square and cross-tabulations analyzed categorical variables based on lab percentiles (low < 33%, high > 66%) for PA energy expenditure (PAEE), intensity (MVPA), FMS, and fitness. Results: GAP MVPA and object control skills (OC) showed positive reciprocal pathways (β = 0.308, β = 0.394; p ≤ 0.05). VO₂max predicted MVPA (β = 0.408; p < 0.01), with leg power related to PAEE (β = 0.456; p ≤ 0.01). Chi-square analysis revealed significant associations between high OC skills and high PAEE (X² = 15.12, p ≤ 0.05), and high individual average scores of OC with high MVPA (X² = 11.90, p < 0.05. The high performance of AP and LP was associated with MVPA and PAEE, respectively. Conclusions: Findings support a positive feedback loop between MVPA and OC skills for GAP. GAP is an effective strategy for program interventions for children 8 to 10-year old. Full article

Background: The current study explores the relationship between children’s risk willingness and their motor behavior in a virtual playground setting and its association with perceived gross motor competence. Methods: A total of 96 children aged seven to ten participated. They were categorized into high-risk-willingness (HRW) and low-risk-willingness (LRW) groups based on their exploratory behavior and engagement with riskier zones and tasks in the playground. Using whole-body motion capture and virtual reality data, the children’s motor behavior and variability were analyzed alongside self-reported perceived gross motor competence. Results: The results indicated that HRW children displayed significantly greater movement variability, including higher joint movement variability and increased exploration of challenging areas compared to LRW children. HRW children also covered greater distances, moved faster, and exhibited more frequent acceleration changes. Conclusions: These findings suggest that higher risk willingness is associated with greater adaptability and flexibility in motor behavior, aligned with the concept of freeing degrees of freedom. In contrast, no significant differences were found in perceived gross motor competence ratings between HRW and LRW groups. This indicates that perceived motor competence may not directly influence children’s willingness to take risks or their motor behavior in exploratory play. These findings emphasize the importance of studying dynamic interactions between risk-taking, motor behavior, and self-perception to understand the development of adaptive motor skills through risky play. Full article

Background/Objectives: Children continually learn and develop new motor skills towards mastery, resulting in varying movement patterns at different stages of motor competence. Understanding this progression and confidently recognising development delay requires synthesising the children’s biomechanics literature. Firstly though, we must understand the past research and the approaches used. This review aims to identify and map the approaches and sources of the current literature in biomechanically quantifying the gross motor movement of typically developing children. Methods: A systematic scoping review was conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology. A database search of MEDLINE (Ovid), Scopus (Elsevier), ProQuest, CINAHL (EBSCO), and Web of Science identified English, peer-reviewed research biomechanically quantifying the movement of healthy children aged 3–12 years. Results include a bibliometric analysis and narrative summary. Results: Overall, 171 papers were included, representing a range of fields including footwear, injury, development, exercise, and activity. Country of origin and funding sources were equally variable. Walking was the predominantly assessed gross motor movement in children, followed by jumping and running. Equipment and facilities often resulted in more artificial settings, and important factors such as footwear used, testing environment, and condition familiarity were rarely reported. Conclusions: The literature results from diverse disciplines, institutions, and funding sources, but inconsistent reporting of conditions hinders synthesis. Future research is recommended to transparently report participant characteristics, environment, and testing conditions and to implement more ecologically valid protocols. Recommendations from this review will improve the quality of future research on children’s movement. Full article

Background: Disadvantaged children often enter kindergarten with delays in fundamental motor skill (FMS) competence, which is critical for future physical activity engagement. The Summer Success—Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers (SS-SKIP) program was designed to address these developmental gaps, with a short, intensive intervention. This pilot study evaluated the impact of a 4-week SS-SKIP program on FMS, perceived motor competence (PMC), and executive function (EF). Methods: Twenty-one preschool children (mean age = 62.62 ± 4.61 months) from disadvantaged communities participated in an intensive, month-long (240 min) program. FMS were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), PMC was evaluated using the Pictorial Scale for Perceived Competence, and EF was measured via the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders (HTKS), Go/No-Go, and Sorting cards tests. Standing long jump was measured in meters. A pretest–post-test design assessed program impact using 2 Gender X 2 Session MANOVAs/ANOVAs on dependent variables. Results: Analysis of differences in baseline measures of FMS competence and EF by Gender and Session revealed no significant main effects of Gender, Session, or their interaction across measures (all p > 0.05). Repeated measures ANOVAs by Gender revealed a significant main effect for Time for locomotor standard scores (p < 0.001), object control standard scores (p < 0.001), and HTKS scores (p < 0.001), indicating improvement from pretest to post-test. By contrast, jump distance, PMC, Go/No-Go and Card Sorting scores were non-significant (p > 0.05). Conclusions: A short, intense SS-SKIP FMS intervention significantly enhanced FMS and improved HTKS performance. This pilot study was limited by the lack of a control group and small N. These findings underscore the potential of short, targeted interventions in addressing early motor delays in disadvantaged preschoolers, warranting further investigation into their long-term impacts. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to examine differences in motor competence and muscular fitness between children engaged in combat sports and their peers who do not participate in structured physical activity. Methods: The sample consisted of 120 healthy eight-year-old children, evenly divided into two groups: 60 children practicing combat sports (karate, judo, and wrestling) for at least one year and 60 children without structured sports involvement. Motor competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), while muscular fitness was evaluated through standing broad jump, grip strength, 30 s sit-ups, bent arm hang, medicine ball throw, and push-ups. For differences between groups, the independent samples t-test was performed. Results: Results indicated that children practicing combat sports demonstrated significantly higher locomotor and manipulative skills (p < 0.01, ES = 0.76–1.25) and superior muscular fitness across all tests (p < 0.01, ES = 0.53–1.09) compared to their peers. Conclusions: These findings highlight the positive impact of combat sports on overall physical development, particularly in enhancing motor competence, muscle strength, and endurance. Given the critical role of motor competence and physical fitness at this age, integrating combat sports into daily routines can support long-term athletic development, encourage physical activity, and enhance overall health. Future research should explore the influence of specific combat sports on distinct physical attributes and consider additional factors such as total physical activity levels. Full article

Background/Objectives: In recent years, there has been a significant increase in studies examining motor learning during preschool age and the early years of primary school. This study aimed to investigate sex differences in gross motor competence among Italian children aged 3–11 years. Methods: A convenience sample of 8500 children (mean age = 8.37 years, SD = 1.98; 50% female) was included in this cross-sectional study. Gross motor skills were assessed using the Italian version of the Test of Gross Motor Development–3, which evaluates locomotion and ball control skills. A Linear Mixed Model was applied to examine the interaction between sex and age, with school included as a random intercept and BMI as a covariate. Results: The results revealed a consistent trend of boys achieving significantly higher total scores for global motor competence (p < 0.001) across all age groups, except at age 11. Boys also demonstrated superior performance in ball control skills (p < 0.005) at all ages. In contrast, no significant differences were observed for locomotion skills overall. However, girls outperform boys in locomotor skills at ages 6, 7, and 8 (p < 0.001), with this trend disappearing by age 9. Conclusions: These findings highlight important sex-related differences in gross motor development during childhood, influenced by both biological and environmental factors. The results underscore the need for targeted interventions in educational settings to provide equitable opportunities for motor skill development, particularly for girls. Enhancing the quality of physical education and addressing gender disparities can support the acquisition of essential motor skills and promote lifelong physical activity. Full article

Several studies in recent decades have investigated the relationship between physical activity and learning, emphasising the role of corporeality as an effective tool for embodying knowledge, as well as skills, motor skills, and life. The aim of this exploratory study is to analyse and interpret the correlations existing between motor competence and school performance in all the disciplines included in the curriculum of primary school. Through non-probability sampling, a sample of 120 Italian children aged 6–10 years was involved. The TGMD-3 test was used to assess gross motor competence, while academic achievement was assessed based on the children’s GPA (grade point average) evaluation. Additional information on extracurricular sports practice was acquired through a questionnaire completed by parents. The Spearman correlation conducted between the children’s TGMD-3 scores (Gross Motor Index, Locomotion, and Ball scaled scores) and the academic achievement showed weak intensity and no statistical significance. In the analysis by sex, only weak and non-significant correlations, mostly of a negative type, were revealed in the group of males. In the group of females, on the other hand, positive, mostly moderate, and statistically significant correlations emerged between GMI and the scaled Ball scores with the learning assessments, except for Physical Education. The results suggest the need to expand studies investigating the quantity and quality of physical education and sports in the formal school context to understand whether, in sharing the educational project, it can promote better school performance and, more generally, more harmonious development of cognitive, motor, and social skills. Full article

Motor skill development is crucial in human growth, evolving with the maturation of the nervous and musculoskeletal systems. Quantifying these skills, especially coordinative abilities, remains challenging. This study aimed to assess the performance of five motor tasks in children and adolescents using high-speed video analysis, providing data for movement and health professionals. Seventy-two volunteers were divided into three age groups: 27 first-grade primary school students (19 males and 8 females, aged 6.5 ± 0.5 years), 35 fourth-grade primary school students (16 males and 19 females, aged 9.2 ± 0.4 years), and 28 s-year middle school students (16 males and 12 females, aged 13.0 ± 0.3 years). Participants performed five motor tasks: standing long jump, running long jump, stationary ball throw, running ball throw, and sprint running. Each task was recorded at 120 frames per second and analyzed using specialized software to measure linear and angular kinematic parameters. Quantitative measurements were taken in the sagittal plane, while qualitative observations were made using a dichotomous approach. Statistical analysis was performed using the Kruskal–Wallis and Mann–Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction. Significant differences were observed across age groups in various parameters. In the standing long jump, older participants exhibited a longer time between initial movement and maximum loading. The running long jump revealed differences in the take-off angle, with fourth-grade students performing the best. Ball-throwing tests indicated improvements in the release angle with age, particularly in females. Sprint running demonstrated the expected improvements in time and stride length with age. Gender differences were notable in fourth-grade students during the running long jump, with females showing greater knee flexion, while males achieved better take-off angles. Video analysis effectively identified age-related and gender-specific differences in motor skill performance. The main differences were measured between first-grade primary school and second-year middle school students while gender differences were limited to all age groups. This method provides valuable insights into motor development trajectories and can be used by professionals to objectively assess and monitor the technical aspects of motor skills across different age groups. Full article

Background: The development of motor competence (MC) during childhood is crucial for future physical activity and health outcomes, and it is affected by both biological and psychosocial factors. Most MC research has focused on children’s age, with fewer studies examining separate associations between MC and biological maturation. Methods: This cross-sectional study used network analysis to assess the nonlinear associations between biological maturation (the child’s percentage of predicted mature stature to indicate somatic maturation), chronological age, sex, BMI, and MC (Test of Gross Motor Development, third edition) in 218 children (100 boys, 118 girls) aged 7–9 years. Results: Biological maturation was not significantly associated with MC in boys and weakly associated with MC in girls for the dribble, under-hand throw, and gallop. Age was positively associated with MC in girls and boys. Centrality measures indicated that the gallop and slide in girls and the dribble, catch, and run in boys were the most important network variables. Positive associations were observed between maturation and BMI for girls (r = 0.579) and, to a lesser degree, for boys (r = 0.267). Conclusions: The findings suggest that age, rather than biological maturation, is positively associated with MC in 7- to 9-year-olds. Centrality measures showed that some skills may influence other skills. Full article