Search Results (97)

We investigate the potential of technology-based attention training (AT), particularly virtual reality (VR), as a stress-management tool. Mental stress is rising globally, and researchers increasingly use immersive technologies, wearable sensors, and machine learning (ML) for its detection and control. This feasibility study examines the impact of fully immersive VR-based AT on mental stress using electroencephalogram (EEG) signals and automated classification. We designed virtual exercises targeting different attention types and analyzed EEG responses with an ML framework; the resulting dataset, collected at the Arab Academy for Science and Technology (Alexandria, Egypt), is publicly available. For an unbiased estimate, we adopt a leakage-free evaluation in which the train/test split is performed by time, before segmentation into overlapping windows, so neighboring windows cannot appear in both sets. Subject-specific tree-based classifiers detected stress with a mean accuracy of about 97%, whereas leave-one-subject-out (LOSO) validation yielded about 67%, indicating strongly individual stress signatures and motivating a subject-specific strategy. Using these models, we compared the number of classifier-predicted stress segments before and after AT and visualized the feature space with T-distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (t-SNE) and Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP). Under subject-specific models the number of stress-predicted segments decreased after AT (Wilcoxon signed-rank $p<0.05$); however, because this reduction was corroborated neither by a non-circular (LOSO) detector nor by a centroid-separation measure, we interpret it as an exploratory, classifier-predicted effect rather than independently validated stress reduction. The results highlight the promise—and the current limits—of integrating immersive VR with EEG-guided analytics for mental-health support. Full article

Background/Objectives: Low back pain (LBP) is a leading cause of disability worldwide, and exercise-based rehabilitation is recognized as an effective management strategy. However, adherence to exercise remains challenging. Fully immersive virtual reality (VR) exercise interventions may enhance engagement and clinical outcomes. This study aimed to examine the effect of a fully immersive VR exercise game on pain, fear-avoidance beliefs, and disability in individuals with chronic non-specific LBP. Methods: A single-blinded randomized controlled trial was conducted, involving 28 participants aged 18–60 years with chronic non-specific LBP. Participants were randomly allocated to either a VR exercise group with standard education (n = 14) or a conventional home exercise group with standard education (n = 14). Both groups performed their assigned intervention once per day for two weeks. Outcomes included the Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ), Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), Back Beliefs Questionnaire (BBQ), and functional performance tests (six-minute walk test, repeated sit-to-stand, and trunk flexion). Measures were assessed at baseline and after a 2-week intervention period. Exercise adherence was recorded using a self-reported log. Results: No significant within- or between-group differences were observed for FABQ scores. However, a significant between-group difference was reported for pain reduction in the VR group (p = 0.044). No significant differences were reported for disability or belief-related outcomes, or for physical performance outcomes, including the 6 min walk test, repeated sit-to-stand test, and trunk flexion test. Conclusions: A fully immersive VR exercise intervention resulted in greater short-term pain reduction compared to conventional exercise in individuals with chronic non-specific LBP. However, it had little impact on fear-avoidance beliefs or disability, highlighting the need for multimodal approaches that address broader biopsychosocial factors. Full article

Immersive virtual reality (VR) provides a valuable platform for examining cognitive regulation and adaptive performance in realistic vocational tasks. This study investigated adaptation in a hand-tracked VR coffee-preparation task across two trials: a fully guided trial and a subsequent reduced-guidance trial. Thirty participants (N = 30) completed both trials. Performance was assessed using NASA-TLX-based subjective workload ratings, confidence, perceived interaction difficulty, segment-level task times, total completion time, and object-drop errors. Results showed significant reductions in workload, interaction difficulty, insertion, grinding, tamping, and total completion times, as well as fewer dropped objects, while confidence increased. Prior VR experience was associated with lower interaction difficulty, whereas coffee-related experience was associated with higher confidence. Full article

Virtual reality (VR) provides an effective experimental environment for the controlled investigation of autonomic physiological responses under different levels of virtual immersion. This study investigated heart rate variability (HRV) responses to mental stress induced by an interactive VR game. Two stereoscopic conditions were compared: low immersion using polarising glasses and high immersion using a VR headset. Additionally, the applicability of visual, mathematical, and machine learning approaches for analysing VR-related changes in the autonomic nervous system is evaluated. The experiment involved 42 healthy volunteers (37 men and 5 women; mean age 26 ± 7 years). The HRV analysis is based on RR-intervals and includes time, frequency, and nonlinear indicators. Within the nonlinear framework, visual-mathematical methods, including Poincaré diagrams, recurrence plots, and histogram analysis, were applied. For automated classification of physiological states, a Random Forest model using 17 selected HRV parameters was applied. The results show exposure to the VR game elicited significant changes in autonomic cardiac regulation and heart rate variability, with different stereoscopic technologies producing distinct physiological responses. Nonlinear methods and applied visual-mathematical analyses reveal complex dynamic characteristics of heart rate that classical HRV indicators cannot fully capture. ROC and confusion matrix analyses show that the Random Forest model has good discriminative ability in distinguishing between a resting state and different levels of virtual immersion. The results confirm the potential of the proposed integrated approach, combining virtual reality, linear and nonlinear HRV analyses, and machine learning, as a tool for the objective assessment and modelling of autonomic physiological responses during VR exposure. The study has several limitations, including the relatively small and homogeneous sample size and the absence of stress and psychological state assessment through validated questionnaires, which should be addressed in future research. Full article

Extended reality (XR) platforms may support cognitive and functional interventions in mild cognitive impairment (MCI), but their clinical feasibility depends on perceived usability, comfort, and user acceptance. This exploratory pilot study examined subjective acceptability of three integrated XR device–task configurations: a non-immersive Touch TV configuration, a semi-immersive Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE) configuration, and a fully immersive head-mounted display (HMD) configuration. The study included 21 individuals with MCI and 10 cognitively healthy controls. Participants experienced all three device–task configurations in randomized order and completed the Digital Immersion Satisfaction Questionnaire (Qu.G.I.D.), an ad hoc instrument assessing digital literacy, perceived ease of use, preference, and willingness to use the configurations for future applications. Perceived ease of use scores were generally high and did not differ significantly between groups. Repeated-measures exploratory analyses showed no statistically robust configuration effect for perceived ease of use or preference scores. CAVE was numerically the most frequently selected device–task configuration for future applications, but this difference was not statistically significant when non-mutually exclusive selections were analyzed using Cochran’s Q. Digital literacy was not positively associated with Touch TV preference. Because device type, level of immersion, interaction modality, and task content were not experimentally separable, these findings cannot determine whether ratings reflected hardware characteristics or the specific activities performed. The results should therefore be interpreted as preliminary descriptive self-report acceptability and acceptability data, not as evidence of comparative device–task configurations effectiveness. Larger, balanced, counterbalanced studies using validated usability scales, objective performance metrics, interaction-quality measures, and cybersickness assessment are required before hypotheses for future controlled studies can be formulated. Full article

Inspiratory Muscle Training (IMT) is a well-established intervention for enhancing respiratory strength; however, its clinical efficacy is frequently compromised by low adherence and high dropout rates due to the repetitive nature of traditional protocols. While screen-based gamified biofeedback is the most common digital training approach, these non-immersive (NI) conditions often lead to split attention and lack the controlled, private environments necessary for optimal engagement and exercise quality. This study evaluated the impact of immersion level on respiratory performance and user experience by comparing two conditions in gamified Virtual Reality (VR) environments: fully immersive (FI) and NI. The IMT was performed using an instrumented threshold load device, where real-time mouth pressure drove gamified environments designed to guide respiratory patterns. The results demonstrate that perceived effort and fatigue remained consistent across immersion levels; however, the FI condition provided a higher level of immersion despite a reported reduction in breathing control. Notably, 73% of participants found the FI condition more motivating, with higher scores in focus (60%), user preference (63%), and efficacy (40%). Crucially, increased task complexity widened the performance gap between immersion levels. In scenarios requiring higher respiratory muscle workload, significant differences emerged in breathing regulation, specifically regarding the inspiratory duty cycle, favoring the NI condition. Specifically, the NI condition exhibited a higher inspiratory duty cycle and higher scores compared to the FI condition. These findings suggest that while FI significantly boosts user motivation, the synergy between the head-mounted display (HMD) and the physical demands of the threshold device may disrupt respiratory regulation during high-effort tasks. This highlights a critical design trade-off between immersion levels and physiological precision that must be addressed in the development of future digital pulmonary interventions. Full article

Background: Virtual reality (VR) has been increasingly used in motor rehabilitation over the past two decades, but the overall research landscape of this field has not been fully mapped from a bibliometric perspective. Objective: This study aimed to conduct a bibliometric analysis to determine the development of research on VR for motor rehabilitation, focusing on its knowledge structure, major research topics, and temporal changes in the field. Methods: A topic-based search combining VR- and motor rehabilitation-related terms was conducted in the Web of Science Core Collection for the period from 2005 to 2025, yielding 1232 publications. VOSviewer, CiteSpace, R, and Scimago Graphica were used to analyze publication trends, country and institutional contributions, author collaboration, journal and reference co-citation, keyword co-occurrence, citation bursts, and thematic evolution. Results: Publications increased in three stages: slow exploration, steady growth, and rapid expansion. The United States, Italy, China, and Canada were the leading contributors, with McGill University as the most productive institution. Research hotspots included gait and neurological rehabilitation, post-stroke upper-limb recovery, robotics- and neuroscience-integrated rehabilitation, and the rise of immersive VR technology. Conclusions: This study provides a bibliometric overview of research progress in the application of virtual reality technology to motor rehabilitation, offering systematic insights into the field’s knowledge structure, core research themes, evolutionary trajectory, and future research directions. Full article

Wearable inertial sensing has considerable potential for process-level analysis of upper-limb function, but further evidence is needed to understand how it can be applied within ecologically structured immersive virtual reality (VR) tasks. Most VR-based functional assessments rely primarily on outcome-level indicators, such as task completion time, success rate, or error count, which may not fully capture how a task is executed. This exploratory study investigated whether wearable IMU signals collected during an immersive VR sushi-making task could support binary detection of a core upper-limb manipulation phase and provide additional information about task execution beyond global performance outcomes. A total of 45 participants contributed usable motion recordings for this study, with five Xsens DOT sensors placed on the hands, forearms, and waist. Three signal modalities were analysed, including acceleration (ACC), gyroscope angular velocity (GYR), and Euler angles. The downstream recognition problem was formulated as a binary classification task (Placing vs. Non-Placing), and a self-supervised learning (SSL) pretrain–fine-tune strategy was evaluated against conventional machine learning and from-scratch deep learning baselines using five subject-wise validation splits. The strongest overall performance was achieved with hand-mounted accelerometer signals, with LeftHand–ACC achieving a Macro-F1 of $0.712\pm 0.128$ and RightHand–ACC achieving $0.679\pm 0.118$. Under both hand-ACC settings, SSL fine-tuning showed higher mean Macro-F1 than the Balanced Random Forest baseline and the same deep architecture trained from scratch. Recognition performance varied substantially across sensor locations, signal modalities, and task segments, with distal upper-limb sensors generally outperforming waist-based configurations. Cross-age analyses further showed that within-cohort and cross-cohort performance did not fully align, indicating sensitivity to age-related distribution shift. Beyond classification, Log Dimensionless Jerk (LDLJ) derived from the Placing action showed a significant positive association with Cognitron motor control time cost ($r=0.636$, $p<0.001$). These findings suggest that wearable IMU sensing can provide preliminary process-level information during immersive VR functional tasks, including task-phase detection, sensing-configuration comparison, cross-cohort generalisation assessment, and exploratory motion-quality analysis. The results should be interpreted as evidence of feasibility rather than as a mature biomechanical or clinical assessment model. Full article

In safety-critical domains such as aviation, autonomous driving, and defense, operators must process complex spatial and radar data under severe time pressure. Traditional two-dimensional interfaces often force a “head-down” posture, increasing cognitive workload and impairing situational awareness. Extended reality and multimodal interfaces—incorporating gesture, voice, and haptic feedback—offer a promising paradigm to mitigate these limitations by enabling natural, egocentric data visualization. This scoping review systematically maps the empirical evidence on immersive and multimodal interfaces designed for radar and spatial data visualization in critical operational environments. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines, a systematic search was conducted across five major databases for articles published between 2015 and 2025. Out of 538 unique records screened, 54 studies met the eligibility criteria and underwent structured data charting. The findings reveal a technological ecosystem heavily dominated by augmented reality and virtual reality, supplemented by non-extended reality multimodal baselines (n = 8) to evaluate sensory load distribution. While subjective metrics such as the NASA Task Load Index (n = 17, 31.4%) dominate current evaluation practices, there is a notable scarcity of objective real-time physiological biosensors (n = 7, 13%). Crucially, the synthesized data challenges uncritical technological optimism: while multimodal extended reality effectively mitigates visual bottlenecks, certain modalities like mid-air gestures frequently induce physical fatigue and a documented speed–accuracy trade-off. To fully realize the potential of immersive decision support systems, future research must prioritize standardized, ecologically valid evaluation frameworks and explore artificial intelligence-driven adaptive interfaces capable of dynamically modulating information density based on operator workload. Full article

This study investigates young adults’ residential floor plan preferences through the Traditional 2D environment and immersive virtual environments and explores whether immersive virtual environments can more effectively identify young users’ expressed preferences under simulated pre-occupancy evaluation conditions. It further examines the relationship between subjective preferences and quantitative floor plan attributes. Eight small and medium-sized apartment units currently on the market in Fukuoka, Japan, were selected as case samples. First, a quantitative evaluation framework was established by combining space syntax analysis and principal component analysis, through which floor plan attributes were reduced to three interpretable dimensions: privacy, comfort, and functionality. Second, a within-subject experiment was conducted in which 20 young participants evaluated the same eight floor plans under both 2D and immersive virtual reality conditions using the Residential Spatial Satisfaction Questionnaire. The results show that the virtual reality condition produced significantly higher ratings for privacy, comfort, functionality, and overall satisfaction than the 2D condition. In addition, immersive virtual reality yielded greater plan discriminability and clearer group-level preference rankings, indicating that it more effectively reveals differences among alternative housing schemes. However, the preference rankings derived from subjective evaluation in virtual reality showed only limited agreement with the rankings generated by the principal component analysis-based physical framework, suggesting that objectively optimized spatial attributes do not automatically correspond to users’ expressed residential floor plan preferences. Overall, the findings indicate that current housing design logic may not fully respond to the experiential needs of potential young users, and that early-stage residential design evaluation should place greater emphasis on user-centered assessment. Compared with traditional 2D representation, immersive virtual reality provides a more effective medium for pre-occupancy housing evaluation and preference-based design decision making. Full article

Distance learners in higher education are often assumed to face limited peer interaction, potentially weakening their sense of belonging. This study examines peer relationships and belonging among students in distance and blended university programs, with attention to the role of virtual reality (VR) within digitally mediated learning environments. Immersive VR teaching is included in the curriculum for distance learning students in the studied programs. Using a mixed-methods design, survey data and open-ended responses were collected from 17 students in Information Studies and Information Service Design. An adapted Classroom Community Scale was supplemented with items addressing the perceived contribution of different communication technologies. Contrary to expectations, fully distance learners did not report weaker agreement with statements reflecting belonging than blended students; on several items, they expressed stronger agreement, particularly regarding perceived peer support and learning opportunities. Results indicate that conventional 2D communication tools, particularly chats and video calls, are central to sustaining peer relationships. VR was not perceived as essential but described by some students as an added value supporting shared experience and group cohesion. Overall, belonging emerges as a socio-technical achievement shaped by communication practices rather than physical proximity. Full article

Background: Work at heights is a high-risk occupational activity, with falls being a leading cause of fatal accidents in construction and industrial maintenance. Conventional safety training often does not fully prepare workers for real-world hazards. Immersive virtual reality (IVR) has emerged as a promising training tool, providing controlled and realistic simulations of hazardous scenarios. This hypothesis-generating pilot study evaluates the feasibility and effectiveness of IVR in enhancing practical skills, safety perception, and physiological responses during work-at-height training. Methods: This controlled trial will recruit first-time trainees from the National Learning Service (SENA) of Colombia. Participants will be assigned to an intervention group, receiving IVR training before field-based practical sessions, or a control group, receiving standard theoretical instruction. Outcomes include practical skill acquisition, ergonomic risk, cognitive performance, and physiological responses, including heart rate variability measured with validated devices. Assessments will be performed using standardized tools, and data will be analyzed with repeated-measures ANOVA and regression models to compare groups. Conclusions: By integrating practical, cognitive, ergonomic, and physiological measures, this study will provide evidence on whether IVR improves the effectiveness of work-at-height training beyond conventional methods. Findings may inform future strategies to enhance occupational safety training in high-risk work environments. Full article

Background: Virtual, augmented, and mixed reality (or collectively extended reality, XR) serious games, combined with motion-tracking technologies, are increasingly used for motor and cognitive rehabilitation and training. As XR and tracking technologies advance, a systematic mapping of the related research area could offer relevant insights. Objectives: This review aims to map interactive XR serious games, using motion-tracking technologies for physical or cognitive rehabilitation or training, and describe intervention characteristics and evaluation methods. Eligibility Criteria: Eligible studies were English, peer-reviewed journal articles published between 2015 and October 2025, with more than three participants, using custom XR serious games for rehabilitation or training. Studies were excluded if they focused on technical aspects, passive XR, diagnostic evaluation, psychological therapies, minor participants, procedural training, or education. Charting Methods: Data were charted using a structured form capturing XR characteristics, hardware configurations, study characteristics, and evaluation methods. Results: 61 studies were included. Most employed non-immersive or fully immersive VR interventions, targeting physical upper-body rehabilitation, especially post-stroke and Parkinson’s disease. Usability, acceptability and user experience, and training effectiveness were commonly evaluated with positive outcomes. Conclusions: The findings highlight opportunities for research into augmented and mixed reality approaches, particularly for cognitive function, and use of XR-based interventions across broader populations. Full article

Expressway traffic noise poses a critical threat to public health in developed high-density cities, causing chronic environmental stress in adjacent residential areas. While physical noise barriers are commonly used, the potential of audiovisual interactions in mitigating the adverse effects of traffic noise remains under-explored. Using immersive virtual reality (VR), this study examined the efficacy of visual greenery and auditory masking (birdsong) in promoting stress recovery, and tested whether audiovisual perception mediates the environment–restoration link. Following an acute stressor, 100 participants were randomly assigned to a 2 × 2 between-subjects experiment manipulating Green View Index (high vs. low) and soundscape composition (traffic noise vs. traffic noise plus birdsong), with 25 participants in each group. Restorative outcomes were assessed using self-reported measures and continuous physiological monitoring (heart rate variability [HRV] and electrodermal activity [EDA]). Results demonstrated that high-intensity visual greenery and natural sounds effectively enhance psychological restoration in noise-affected environments. Structural equation modeling revealed that audiovisual perception fully mediated the relationship between environmental features and restorative outcomes. The physiological outcome showed a distinct tiered restoration pattern, indicating that immediate psychological buffering can be achieved through natural sounds, while consistent visual reinforcement remained essential for deep physiological recovery. Consequently, soundscape planning in expressway-adjacent zones should integrate visual greening strategies to optimize the perceptual masking of traffic noise and enhance the environmental quality. Full article

Immersive technologies such as Desktop Virtual Reality (DVR), Immersive Rooms (IR), and fully immersive Virtual Reality (VR) are transforming K-12 education by enabling experiential, multisensory, and participatory learning. Yet their pedagogical impact depends not only on hardware fidelity but on the interplay between technological affordances, instructional design, and learner characteristics. Guided by the Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL), this mixed-methods study examined how these factors jointly shape affordances, challenges, students perceived learning, and self-assessment in authentic classroom contexts. Data were collected from 31 teachers and 252 students across 21 schools using teacher interviews, classroom observations, and student questionnaires. Findings revealed that agency and presence emerged as central affordances but also as potential challenges, depending on lesson design and cognitive load. DVR consistently supported higher perceived learning and stronger links between engagement and self-assessment, while IR showed the weakest outcomes and VR displayed trade-offs between immersion and control. The study proposes a revised CAMIL framework that integrates social co-presence, learner characteristics, and perceived learning as essential components for understanding immersive learning in schools. These results highlight that effective immersion arises from pedagogical orchestration, not technological intensity alone. Full article