Search Results (1,400)

Mumps remains a public health challenge worldwide despite being a vaccine-preventable disease. This review outlines the historical development and contrasting mumps vaccination policies in the United States and Japan and their epidemiological consequences. In the United States, where the two-dose measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine is routinely administered, the incidence of mumps has markedly decreased. Recently, however, sporadic outbreaks have emerged, driven by breakthrough infections among vaccinated individuals. These resurgences are driven largely by waning immunity, coupled with antigenic divergence between the vaccine strain and circulating wild-type viruses. In contrast, Japan vaccination the MMR vaccine was licensed in 2026 after being suspended in 1993 owing to concerns over aseptic meningitis as an adverse event following immunization but mumps vaccination remains voluntary. This has resulted in low vaccination coverage, a lack of herd immunity, and recurrent epidemics. This review also highlights the disease-modifying effect of mumps vaccination, including a reduced risk of complications such as meningitis and orchitis, even in cases of breakthrough infection. In Japan, irreversible sensorineural hearing loss (mumps deafness), continues to occur even following subclinical infection. To prevent these complications, continuous molecular surveillance, improved vaccine safety, and reintroduction of routine two-dose mumps vaccination in Japan are essential. Full article

Pandemic response requires not only epidemiological control but also the allocation of limited social resources across competing uses. This paper develops an integrated economic–epidemiological framework to examine how resources should be allocated among goods production, preventive intervention, and therapeutic intervention during an infectious disease outbreak. Building on the susceptible–infected–recovered (SIR) model, the analysis treats the infection rate and the recovery rate as policy-sensitive variables shaped by preventive and therapeutic resource allocation. The objective is intentionally parsimonious and focuses on output preservation and resource allocation under epidemic constraints; infections affect the economy indirectly by reducing effective labor input and output. Two epidemiological environments are considered: one with permanent immunity after recovery and another with possible reinfection. The results reveal a robust timing pattern across both environments. Preventive allocation tends to peak before the surge in infections, whereas therapeutic allocation tends to move more closely with the infection trajectory. The analysis also makes explicit the opportunity cost of intervention: allocating more resources to prevention or treatment reduces the resources available for goods production. Phase-diagram representations clarify the mechanism behind this timing distinction, and sensitivity analyses over alternative curvature parameters confirm that the qualitative ordering of the peaks is robust. These findings suggest that the effectiveness of pandemic response depends not only on the total amount of intervention resources, but also on their timing and functional allocation. By linking epidemic dynamics, resource scarcity, and policy timing within a unified optimization framework, the paper contributes to economic–epidemiological modeling and offers implications for pandemic preparedness, health-system resilience, and the design of response strategies for future infectious disease emergencies. Full article

Seasonal epidemics and high variability of influenza viruses pose a severe threat to global public health security. Neuraminidase, a key functional enzyme in the life cycle of influenza viruses, represents an important target for anti-influenza drug development. Given the continuous emergence of drug-resistant strains against first-line clinical neuraminidase inhibitors (NAIs) such as oseltamivir, there is an urgent need to develop novel, broad-spectrum, and resistance-overcoming NAIs. Natural products, characterized by structural diversity and a wide range of biological activities, provide abundant resources for the discovery of new NAIs. Recent advances in computer-aided drug design, intelligent analytical platforms, and modern screening technologies have accelerated the identification of natural product-derived NAIs. In particular, biosensor-based strategies, including electrochemical, fluorescence, bioluminescence, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering biosensors, have demonstrated significant advantages in sensitivity, selectivity, rapid response, and high-throughput screening. In combination with computational methods and experimental approaches such as affinity ultrafiltration and activity-guided separation, these technologies have promoted the development of intelligent, precise, and multimodal screening platforms. Looking forward, the integration of biosensor-based high-throughput screening platforms with artificial intelligence algorithms is expected to drive the next generation of natural product screening platforms and facilitate the efficient discovery and clinical translation of novel NAIs. This paper systematically reviews the research progress of screening strategies for natural product-derived NAIs; introduces representative natural active NAIs, including phenols, terpenoids, and alkaloids; and prospects future development directions, aiming to provide a scientific reference for the efficient discovery of NAIs from natural products. Full article

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global threat to both human and animal health. Carbapenems are last-resort antimicrobials used to treat severe infections with multidrug-resistant Gram-negative nosocomial pathogens in humans. Therefore, the dissemination of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPE) has emerged as a major concern worldwide. Although carbapenems are not routinely used in veterinary medicine, CPE, including OXA-48-like-producing Escherichia coli, are increasingly being reported in companion animals. We document the first report of E. coli-harbouring bla_OXA-484 isolated from a urine sample from a dog with a history of chronic thoracolumbar myelopathy. Using a combined Oxford Nanopore (ONT) long-reads and Illumina short-reads sequencing approach, the isolate was characterized and an IncF plasmid containing bla_OXA-484 was reconstructed. The isolate belonged to sequence type (ST)167, which is an emerging high-risk clone frequently reported among human clinical isolates. The bla_OXA-484 gene was harboured in a composite transposon bracketed by IS26 identical to that of bla_OXA-484 carried on an IncX plasmid pOXA-484-JS316 from a human clinical E. coli ST410 from Germany. The isolation of the epidemic clone ST167 harbouring bla_OXA-484 from a canine infection raises the hypothesis of a transmission event between humans and companion animals. Full article

Nipah virus (NiV) is a highly pathogenic zoonotic pathogen. Since its discovery in 1998, recurrent epidemics have occurred in South and Southeast Asia, with a case fatality rate ranging from 40% to 100%. The outbreak in West Bengal, India in early 2026 has once again highlighted its severe threat to public health. To date, no licensed human vaccines or specific therapeutics against NiV are available worldwide. This review systematically summarizes the breakthroughs in antigen design for NiV vaccines, with a focus on conformational stabilization of prefusion F (pre-F) protein, chimeric G/F antigens, and multivalent nanoparticle strategies. In addition, we comparatively analyze the clinical progress of mainstream vaccine platforms, including viral vectors, mRNA and subunit vaccines. Given the sporadic nature and high mortality of NiV infection, the conventional licensing pathway relying on large-scale phase III clinical trials faces substantial practical obstacles. Accordingly, this article discusses adaptive adjustments in regulatory science. We propose several strategies to accelerate the clinical translation and emergency stockpiling of NiV vaccine candidates, including establishing unified correlates of protection thresholds, coordinating multinational regulatory resources, and optimizing the implementation of Animal Rule. Full article

This paper introduces a fractal–fractional SEIR epidemic model based on the Atangana–Baleanu derivative in the Caputo sense augmented by fractal scaling. The fractional order $\alpha \in (0,1]$ captures memory effects while the fractal dimension $\beta \in (0,1]$ accounts for irregular contact networks. We prove global existence, uniqueness, positivity, and boundedness of solutions via fixed-point arguments and establish global Ulam–Hyers stability. An adapted second-order Adams–Bashforth–Moulton predictor-corrector scheme with explicit weights is derived and verified. Numerical simulations across representative $(\alpha ,\beta )$ pairs reveal that decreasing either parameter delays epidemic peaks, reduces peak intensity (with $\beta$ exerting a stronger damping effect), prolongs tails, and induces irregular oscillations—features absent from classical or pure-fractional SEIR models. These results provide a rigorous and reproducible framework for forecasting emerging infections in heterogeneous populations and carry direct implications for targeted public health interventions. Full article

The aim of the present study is to propose a new mathematical model of compartment type for an epidemic problem using fractional order derivatives. This epidemic model takes into account vaccination, hospitalization, asymptomatic infection, and health awareness programs. Caputo fractional derivatives are used to model the temporal non-locality of epidemic phenomena in the proposed model. The qualitative analysis of the model includes the characterization of equilibrium points and their stability. The disease-free equilibrium (DFE) is shown to be locally asymptotically stable when the basic reproduction number $R_0<1$, and unstable otherwise. Conversely, an endemic equilibrium emerges when $R_0>1$, corresponding to the instability of the DFE. Periodic oscillation is observed for a higher rate of infection transmission. A fractional optimal control problem is formulated to minimize disease prevalence through vaccination, hospitalization, and treatment strategies, supported by sustained awareness campaigns. The results emphasize the role of vaccination, treatment and awareness campaign in controlling Mpox outbreaks, showing their success in minimizing the epidemic. In addition, a fractional optimal control model is proposed to reduce disease prevalence using preventive measures such as vaccinations and treatments coupled with awareness impacts. From these results, one can clearly understand that vaccinations and continuous public health awareness are essential in reducing Mpox cases, which help flatten epidemic trends. Full article

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) represents the single most common etiology of chronic kidney disease and end stage kidney disease globally, a burden that continues to expand in direct proportion to the worldwide growth of the diabetes epidemic. The pathogenesis of DKD is multifactorial, involving metabolic, hemodynamic, inflammatory, and fibrotic pathways. Among these, aldosterone has emerged as a key mediator of kidney injury, extending beyond its traditional role in sodium balance and blood pressure regulation. Through activation of both MR-dependent transcriptional processes and MR-independent signaling cascades, aldosterone drives a coordinated pattern of renal injury encompassing oxidative stress generation, endothelial dysfunction, podocyte damage, inflammatory cell recruitment, and progressive interstitial fibrosis. Current therapies targeting the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS), including angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, have significantly improved outcomes in DKD. Despite these advances, a considerable degree of residual cardiovascular and renal risk persists, attributable in part to the incomplete attenuation of aldosterone activity and the well-characterized phenomenon of aldosterone escape under sustained RAAS blockade. Aldosterone synthase inhibitors (ASIs) represent a mechanistically distinct therapeutic approach that targets aldosterone overproduction at its enzymatic source, potentially addressing both MR-dependent and independent pathways. Early clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of ASIs have demonstrated promising effects on blood pressure and albuminuria. This review summarizes the role of aldosterone in DKD pathogenesis, evaluates current therapeutic approaches, and discusses emerging evidence supporting ASIs as a potential addition to the evolving treatment landscape. Full article

South Asians appear to be particularly susceptible to diabetes. India hosts 18 percent of the world’s population but more than 25 percent of the world’s diabetics, and individuals of South Asian descent carry this presumed increased risk for diabetes when they emigrate to other parts of the world. One conundrum is that the epidemic of diabetes began around Calcutta (modern day Kolkata) in east India well before it appeared in the United States and Europe, and this emergence occurred despite the frequent occurrence of famines and starvation in India. Here we review the history of diabetes in India and the possible significance of high carbohydrate in low-protein diet contexts. We suggest that the circumstantial relationship between diet and a spectrum that includes diabetes associated with obesity at one end, and impaired glucose tolerance and protein malnutrition (kwashiorkor) at the other, could be significant. If the cause of type 2 diabetes in South Asians is primarily nutritional, and, as suggested by others, aggravated by starvation and famine that increased the risk for low birth weight as an additional risk factor for diabetes, these insights may together help explain an enhanced susceptibility of South Asians to diabetes. Full article

The re-emergence of Coxsackievirus A6 (CV-A6) as a predominant pathogen in hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) underscores the need for ongoing molecular surveillance to clarify local evolutionary dynamics. This study aimed to characterize the genetic features of CV-A6 strains circulating in Baotou, Inner Mongolia, from 2023 to 2024. Throat swabs collected from HFMD patients were screened using real-time quantitative PCR; the VP1 region and complete genomes of representative CV-A6-positive samples were amplified and sequenced. Phylogenetic and recombination analyses were subsequently performed. Among 266 clinical specimens, 169 (63.53%) tested positive for enterovirus, of which 146 (86.39%) were identified as CV-A6. The local epidemic displayed an autumn–winter seasonality and predominantly affected children aged 4–6 years. Phylogenetic reconstruction of 133 VP1 sequences revealed that all Baotou CV-A6 isolates belonged to subgenotype D3c, and analysis of complete genomes identified a predominant recombinant form. These findings demonstrate that the D3c subgenotype, characterized by a specific recombinant structure, was responsible for HFMD outbreaks in Baotou during the study period, providing essential molecular evidence for regional public health strategies and vaccine development. Full article

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a lethal disease of poultry that has recently spilled over into mammals, including dairy cattle and humans, heightening concerns for livestock health, food security, and pandemic emergence. While vaccines that induce neutralizing antibodies against hemagglutinin and neuraminidase provide strain-specific protection, durable cross-subtype immunity requires T-cell responses targeting conserved internal antigens such as nucleoprotein (NP). To leverage these conserved targets, we utilized a previously engineered mosaic nucleoprotein (MNP) incorporating T-cell epitopes from thousands of influenza A virus (IAV) strains, conferring broad protection against epidemic (H3N2) and pandemic (H1N1) IAV in mice. Here, we tested whether precision adjuvancy could differentially imprint adaptive immunity to MNP in cattle. Combination formulations paired the carbomer-based nano-emulsion Adjuplex (ADJ) with either a STING agonist (cyclic dinucleotides; CdN) or a TLR4 agonist (glucopyranosyl lipid A; GLA) to program distinct inflammatory milieus. Both formulations elicited circulating IFN-γ–producing T cell responses and NP-specific antibodies in serum and milk. However, STING activation via CdN generated more potent and consistent cellular and humoral immunity than TLR4 engagement. These data demonstrate that selective activation of innate sensing pathways functionally imprints adaptive immune magnitude and quality in a large animal host. By advancing a broadly protective, T-cell-focused vaccine strategy in cattle, this work supports a One Health framework to mitigate H5N1 transmission risk at the human–animal interface. Full article

Lumpy skin disease (LSD), a vector-borne viral disease of cattle, re-emerged in Italy in June 2025 after six years of absence in Europe, affecting the island of Sardinia, which had previously been disease-free. The insular setting, the predominance of extensive cattle farming systems, and the rapid implementation of control measures provided a unique opportunity to investigate epidemic dynamics and evaluate vaccination effectiveness under field conditions. This study aimed to describe the epidemiological pattern of the first epidemic season (June–October 2025), estimate key transmission parameters, and assess vaccination effectiveness at the farm level. Confirmed outbreaks consistent with local transmission and notified between 20 June and 26 October 2025 were analyzed to characterize epidemic transmission dynamics, while vaccination effectiveness was assessed over an extended follow-up period through 31 December 2025. The between-farm basic reproduction number (R₀) was estimated from the early exponential growth phase using log-linear regression and doubling time calculations. Spatio-temporal clustering was assessed using Kulldorff’s scan statistic under a Poisson model, accounting for the population at risk. Vaccination effectiveness was evaluated using a time-dependent Cox proportional hazards model with a 21-day post-vaccination lag. A total of 79 outbreaks were confirmed, of which 68 were consistent with local transmission. Affected farms included a total of 3443 cattle, with morbidity, mortality, and case fatality rates of 14.4%, 7.0%, and 31.1%, respectively. The exponential growth phase lasted four weeks, with an estimated growth rate of 0.366 per week and a doubling time of 1.89 weeks. The estimated R₀ ranged from 1.55 to 1.92, depending on the assumed generation time, indicating moderate but sustained transmission. The median apparent spatial spread velocity was 4.8 km/day. Spatio-temporal analysis identified a single highly significant cluster in the central-eastern area, accounting for approximately 27% of outbreaks (RR = 58.06; p < 0.001). Vaccination was associated with a substantial reduction in outbreak risk (HR = 0.18; 95% CI: 0.06–0.51; p = 0.001), corresponding to an estimated effectiveness of approximately 82% at the farm level. The 2025 Sardinian epidemic was characterized by moderate transmissibility and strong spatial clustering during the early phase. Rapid implementation of vaccination was associated with a significant reduction in outbreak risk, even under conditions of high infection pressure. The integration of spatio-temporal analyses and time-dependent modeling proved essential to support evidence-based control strategies in newly affected regions. Full article

East Coast Fever (ECF) causes approximately one million livestock deaths annually in sub-Saharan Africa, posing a significant threat to livestock. The wildlife–livestock interface complicates disease management, as wildlife serve as reservoirs. This study developed a Continuous Time Markov Chain (CTMC) model incorporating the wildlife–livestock interface to analyze ECF dynamics. Using the Galton–Watson approximation, we assessed the probability of disease extinction following the introduction of infected hosts or vectors. The probability of disease extinction calculated from the branching process is shown to be in good agreement with the probability approximated from numerical simulations. The disease dynamics of the deterministic model and the CTMC model are compared to ascertain the effect of demographic stochasticity on ECF dynamics. Differences in model predictions and asymptotic dynamics between stochastic and deterministic models were evident. The deterministic and stochastic formulations should therefore be viewed as complementary modeling frameworks, with the deterministic model characterizing average epidemic dynamics and the CTMC model capturing the probabilistic variability and extinction behavior inherent in real transmission processes. These differences are crucial for intervention strategies earmarked to prevent outbreaks. Our analysis revealed a high probability of ECF extinction if the disease emerges from recovered carrier cattle. Finite time to ECF disease extinction is estimated using 10,000 sample paths, and it is shown that the epidemic duration is shortest if the disease is introduced by infectious cattle. The epidemic duration is longest when the disease is introduced by infectious ticks. Additionally, we observed that host interactions at the wildlife–livestock interface play a critical role in shaping ECF transmission and informing control strategies. Full article

Background: The 2025 EPI Managers’ Meeting for West African countries in Guinea was a critical platform for EPI managers to make an in-depth analysis of immunization programmes. We present a structured analysis of immunization status in West Africa using a WHO Health System model to move beyond descriptive reporting toward systemic analysis for actionable solutions. Methods: The meeting convened EPI managers from 14 of the 17 West African countries and partners supporting the immunization program. Country and regional presentations, immunization and surveillance data and meeting discussions were analysed through a framework identifying (1) core problems, (2) systemic barriers using WHO health systems building blocks and (3) actionable recommendations or call for action. Results: Analysis revealed stagnating immunization coverage. Recovery from COVID-19 pandemic disruptions remained limited, with persistent outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases (VPD). Among the five Immunization Agenda 2030 objectives assessed, only Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus (MNT) elimination was on track. Four critical challenges emerged: (1) Routine immunization stagnation with DTP3 median coverage of 76%. This was associated with challenges related to poor data quality, weak implementation of innovative vaccination strategies and donor dependency, as 88.2% of countries financed less than 50% of routine vaccine costs domestically. (2) Sub-optimal progress in Big Catch-Up (BCU) implementation in some countries, revealing poor health system resilience. (3) Inability to sustain high coverage for new vaccine introductions despite significant progress, highlighting demand and service delivery gaps. (4) Persistent VPD outbreaks with geographical expansion and the resurgence of diphtheria epidemics since 2023. Conclusions: Persistent immunization challenges in West Africa appear to reflect interconnected systemic challenges, suggesting the need for a fundamental shift toward subnational strategies, integration of immunization services within primary health care (PHC) and improved data quality. Sustainable financing of the national EPI and acceleration of local vaccine manufacturing is essential to achieve immunization sovereignty in West Africa. Country Call for Action provides strategic guidance to reverse the trend toward the Immunization Agenda 2030 targets. Full article

Remote sensing of crop diseases has traditionally focused on detecting visible symptoms, often limiting intervention to advanced stages of epidemic development. This study investigates whether high-resolution unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)-based red–green–blue (RGB) imagery can reveal earlier physiological destabilization preceding visible symptoms of wheat stripe rust and wheat leaf rust. UAV imagery was acquired at four winter wheat-growing sites in Luxembourg during the 2018/2019 season. Temporal dynamics of green–red spectral slopes were analyzed and compared with ground-based disease severity observations to identify potential pre-symptomatic spectral signals. A consistent flattening of the green–red spectral slope was detected prior to a rapid increase in visually assessed severity for both diseases. However, the length of this pre-symptomatic window varied between the two diseases: it lasted 7 to 14 days for wheat stripe rust and 5 to 10 days for wheat leaf rust. Likewise, the reduction in spectral slope magnitude was slightly greater for wheat stripe rust (65–80%) than for wheat leaf rust (60–75%), indicating that the temporal lead time and intensity of the spectral response were disease-dependent. During the pre-symptomatic phase, the spectral dynamics reflected latent physiological changes rather than visible disease severity. Strong correlations emerged only after the epidemic transition. These findings demonstrate that UAV-based RGB imagery could capture a distinct pre-symptomatic phase of stripe rust and leaf rust epidemics in winter wheat. Interpreting RGB spectral dynamics as early-warning indicators rather than merely as static severity proxies can guide proactive disease monitoring and precision agriculture. Full article