Search Results (2,027)

Topmouth culter (Culter alburnus) is one of the most economically important freshwater fish in China, but intensive aquaculture has caused germplasm degradation and reduced growth performance, while the genetic basis underlying growth variation in this species remains poorly understood. This study aimed to identify major-effect loci and candidate genes associated with growth-related traits to support molecular breeding. Whole-genome resequencing (average depth 11.44×) was performed on 300 individuals derived from random mating among three geographic populations (Danjiangkou, Taihu, and Poyang Lake); 239 individuals with complete phenotypic records were retained for a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of five growth-related traits, including body weight (BW), body weight without viscera (BWW), total length (TL), body length (BL), and body height (BH). After stringent filtering, 7,597,008 high-quality single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were obtained, and association analysis was conducted using a linear mixed model, followed by Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate correction and 1000-permutation testing for BW and BL. Six genome-wide significant SNPs and 473 suggestive SNPs were identified, with individual significant SNPs explaining over 11% of phenotypic variance, indicating candidate loci of putatively moderate-to-large effect. Significant SNPs were predominantly clustered on chromosomes 16 and 19. Four candidate genes—aig1, cacna1b, pgm5, and bcr—were identified, with functions related to lipid metabolism, muscle structure, and cell proliferation. This first population-level GWAS in topmouth culter provides valuable molecular markers for marker-assisted selection and lays a foundation for accelerated genetic improvement of this species. Full article

Pinus yunnanensis Franch. is a native pioneer and economically important tree in Yunnan Province in China. In this study, over 1400 annual seedlings were used. Following national or regional official seedling quality standards, seedlings were classified into three grades, namely Grade I, Grade II, and Grade III by using mean ± 1/2 standard deviation method according to the height of seedlings (H ± 1/2σ). Morphological traits including seedling height, ground-line diameter, root length, and root average diameter were measured from September 2022 to December 2023 for each grade. A power-law allometric growth model was constructed, and the standardized major axis method was used to analyze the allometric relationships between plant height and ground-line diameter as well as between root length and root average diameter. The results showed that higher grade seedlings exhibited stronger synergistic plasticity, accelerating allometric growth and enhancing phenotypic plasticity. A significant positive correlation was found between plant height and ground-line diameter growth rates, with ground-line diameter showing greater plasticity. Grade I seedlings demonstrated clear advantages, with mean allometric rates of 0.5860 for plant height versus ground-line diameter and 1.6315 for root length versus root system. The phenotypic plasticity index for ground-line diameter was high across all three grades, but actual thickening varied by grade due to different initial diameters, with Grade I and II seedlings growing much more than Grade III. For plant height, the index ranged from 0.3 to 0.8, with values of 0.6–0.7 for Grade I, 0.3–0.7 for Grade II, and 0.6–0.8 for Grade III. These findings provide a scientific basis for evaluating seedling quality, breeding, reproduction, and improving survival and growth in later-stage afforestation. Full article

Circadian clocks are endogenous timing systems that coordinate plant physiology, metabolism, development, and stress responses with daily and seasonal environmental cycles. In crops, circadian and photoperiodic pathways influence agronomically important traits including photosynthesis, carbon allocation, flowering time, growth, stress resilience, and nutritional quality. Although flowering time and photoperiod response pathways have long been indirectly exploited during domestication and breeding, the broader potential of circadian regulation for crop improvement and time-sensitive management remains only partially developed. This review examines the role of plant circadian clocks in crop productivity, with emphasis on molecular mechanisms, crop-specific clock-associated loci, breeding strategies, and chrono-agricultural applications. We summarize conserved and divergent features of the plant clock, including transcriptional repression and activation modules, environmental entrainment, and post-transcriptional regulatory layers. We then discuss how circadian regulation shapes productivity traits and highlight examples from rice, wheat, barley, maize, soybean, sorghum, tomato, and other crops. These examples show that agricultural adaptation often involves fine-tuning or rewiring circadian and photoperiodic outputs rather than maintaining a universal optimal clock state. Finally, we evaluate chrono-agriculture as an emerging framework for aligning management practices with biological timing. While controlled-environment agriculture and high-value horticultural systems are currently the most practical settings for testing chrono-agricultural strategies, open-field applications require careful consideration of environmental variability, sensor limitations, labour, machinery logistics, economic feasibility, and multi-environment validation. Integrating circadian biology with crop genetics, phenotyping, modelling, and agronomy may provide new opportunities to improve productivity, resilience, resource-use efficiency, and quality traits in sustainable agricultural systems. Full article

The economic value of Bombyx mori is built on two complementary substrates: the productive traits and the molecular mechanism of fibroin synthesis. Despite their importance to European sericulture, neither phenotypic nor transcriptional characterizations of Romanian breeds have been reported. Herein, we combine ten phenotypic traits with qRT-PCR quantification of fibroin light-chain (Fib-l) and fibroin heavy-chain (FIBH) expression across four B. mori breeds: the Romanian breeds Băneasa 1 (B1) and Galben de Băneasa (GB), the Japanese breed JH3, and the Chinese breed Auriu Chinez (ACH). All breeds were reared on the same artificial diet under identical thermohydrometric conditions, highlighting the genetic background as the dominant source of variation. Phenotypically, univariate testing and multivariate analyses converged on a two-cluster solution, (B1 + JH3) and (GB + ACH), consistent with genetic background and silk-pigment. However, B1 is the only breed that combines high silk-gland mass with Fib-l overexpression relative to the other three breeds (FC = 2.7–3.6, all p < 1 × 10⁻⁴) and with a Fib-l/FIBH expression ratio of 9.27, above the 1.5–2.9 observed in the other three breeds. The molecular signature identifies B1 as transcriptionally distinct and provides a candidate mechanism for superior productive parameters under artificial-diet rearing. Full article

As one of the most economically important cucurbit crops, melon (Cucumis melo L.) is extensively cultivated in semi-arid and tropical regions where high evaporative demand frequently intensifies salt accumulation. These conditions promote the evaporative concentration of salt, leading to salt accumulation in soil and irrigation water, which can impair crop development. Therefore, identifying approaches capable of maintaining seedling establishment under saline conditions is crucial for sustainable melon production. This study evaluated tolerance and antioxidant responses in different melon cultivars using seed treatments to mitigate salt stress effects. The experiment was conducted in two stages under a completely randomized design with four replicates of 50 seeds. In the first stage, a 3 × 5 factorial design tested three salinity levels (0, 60, and 120 mM NaCl) and five cultivars (‘Dali’, ‘Premier’, ‘Supreme’, ‘Imperial 45’, and ‘Asturia’), assessing morphological, physiological, and biochemical traits. In the second stage, two contrasting cultivars (‘Imperial 45’ (sensitive) and ‘Asturia’ (tolerant)) were exposed to salinity combined with stress attenuators, including hydropriming, gibberellic acid, ascorbic acid, salicylic acid, and hydrogen peroxide. Additional biochemical markers and antioxidant enzyme activities were analyzed. Results showed that gibberellic acid and ascorbic acid enhanced antioxidant activity and reduced oxidative damage, particularly in Imperial 45, whereas hydrogen peroxide was more effective in Asturia. Based on their physiological and biochemical responses during germination and early seedling development, Asturia and Imperial 45 were identified as tolerant and sensitive to salt stress, respectively. These findings indicate that the effectiveness of seed treatments depends on cultivar-specific physiological characteristics at the seedling stage. Full article

Urban green infrastructure is increasingly exposed to fine-scale thermal heterogeneity generated by anthropogenic point-source heat emissions, yet the leaf-level responses of adjacent vegetation to such localized stress remain poorly understood. Here, we examined whether air-conditioner (AC) exhaust, a widespread point-source heat emitter, is associated with functional trait shifts in Fraxinus chinensis street trees, and whether easily measurable leaf traits can serve as candidate indicators for ecological monitoring. Using a matched treatment–control field comparison, we compared trees located 2 m from operating AC units with unaffected controls and quantified nine leaf functional traits together with concurrent microclimate variables. AC exhaust created a distinct compound heat–drought–wind micro-environment at the 2 m patch scale, with higher air temperature (+6.3 °C), lower relative humidity (−12.3 percentage points), and higher wind speed (5.2-fold). Exposed trees showed a coordinated shift toward more resource-conservative leaf traits: leaf dry matter content (+14.8%), tissue density (+13.6%), leaf thickness (+6.3%), and stomatal density (+11.7%) increased significantly, whereas specific leaf area (−10.6%), leaf area (−12.5%), chlorophyll content index (−4.6%), and stomatal area (−10.4%) decreased significantly. The observed “small-and-numerous” stomatal configuration suggests altered stomatal regulation, although its implications for transpiration-driven cooling require direct physiological validation. Exploratory structural equation modeling suggested associations among AC-exhaust exposure, leaf economic strategy, and stomatal traits; stomatal regulation showed the highest proportion of model-explained variance (R² = 0.598), but this value should not be interpreted as direct evidence of impairment severity or restoration potential. Leaf dry matter content, specific leaf area, and stomatal density emerged as sensitive and practical candidate indicators of AC-exhaust-associated leaf functional shifts. These findings support precautionary management near AC exhaust outlets, while specific planting-distance thresholds and zoning frameworks require future validation through distance-gradient or manipulative experiments. Full article

Background: Strychnos madagascariensis Poir (Loganiaceae) is a drought-tolerant indigenous fruit tree of East and southern Africa, valued for its food, medicinal, and socio-economic contributions to rural communities. Despite its importance as a candidate food crop, intraspecific morphological and genetic diversity had not previously been characterized, and no simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers had been developed for this species, leaving breeders and conservation planners without the basic diversity baseline needed to prioritize material for domestication. Methods: This study assessed vegetative and reproductive trait variation, variance components, and broad-sense heritability, and SSR-based genetic diversity among 27 morphologically defined S. madagascariensis morphotypes at Bonamanzi Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Three trees were measured per morphotype (81 trees total), over two growing seasons. Genetic diversity was characterized in one representative tree per morphotype using seventeen newly developed SSR loci, the first such markers reported for this species, and analyzed with population structure (STRUCTURE version 2.3.4), PCA, and Nei’s genetic distance. Results: Twenty-seven morphotypes were identified based on leaf colour, shape, hairiness and size, dominated by grey (41%), elongated (59%), less hairy (48%), and medium-sized (>50–90 mm) leaves. Fruit diameter and mass showed the highest inter-morphotype variation (r = 0.949) and also the highest broad-sense heritability (H² = 55.3% and 47.8%, respectively), indicating strong genetic control of these traits and their suitability as targets for selective breeding. Environmental variance exceeded genotypic variance for most traits. A total of 144 alleles were identified across 17 SSR loci (mean 4.24 alleles/locus; mean PIC = 0.31). Population structure gave a preliminary, tentative signal of two genetic clusters (K = 2) with substantial admixture, which we interpret cautiously, given the limited sampling depth. Conclusions: This is the first study to characterize intraspecific morphological variation in S. madagascariensis and the first to develop SSR markers for the species. The results provide a preliminary, single-site framework for conservation genetics and crop improvement that should be validated with larger, multi-site samples. Grey morphotypes GyEvH1, GyEvH2, GyEvH3, GyRlH1 and GyEH2 combined consistent fruiting performance with favourable fruit-trait values and are proposed as priority candidates for further evaluation in domestication and breeding programmes. Full article

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has emerged as a transformative technology for resolving cellular heterogeneity and deciphering gene regulatory networks in complex tissues. Despite challenges such as incomplete genome annotation, technical variability across platforms, and limitations in robust cell-type annotation, scRNA-seq has substantially advanced our understanding of the developmental processes, physiological regulation, and disease responses in pigs, an economically and biomedically important species, thereby providing insights into traits of agricultural and translational relevance. By profiling transcriptomes at the single-cell resolution, scRNA-seq enables the identification of rare cell populations, dynamic cellular states, and lineage trajectories that are critical for reproduction, growth, immunity, and metabolic homeostasis. Recent porcine scRNA-seq studies have generated high-resolution cellular atlases spanning embryos, reproductive organs, immune tissues, skeletal muscle, and the gastrointestinal tract, revealing cell-type-specific regulatory mechanisms associated with reproductive performance, muscle accretion, adipogenesis, immune competence, and intestinal functionality. This review summarizes the fundamental principles and analytical strategies of scRNA-seq, highlights its major applications in porcine biology and production, and discusses current challenges as well as future perspectives for integrating single-cell technologies into livestock science. Full article

Introduction: Skates (Rajidae) are cornerstone elasmobranchs, yet their intrinsic biological constraints, like slow growth, late maturation, and low fecundity, render them exceptionally susceptible to anthropogenic pressure. Despite their ecological and economic importance, tracking their population trajectories is historically hindered by “taxonomic blurring” and aggregated reporting in commercial fisheries. Objective: This study evaluates long-term conservation trends and exploitation dynamics of Rajidae species in the Northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. Methodology: We analyzed 31 Rajidae species across the Northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea (FAO Areas 27 and 37) by integrating IUCN Red List assessments, species-specific life-history traits (maximum body size and depth distribution), and FAO fisheries landing data from 1992 to 2023. Descriptive analyses and Spearman correlations were used to assess temporal trends in conservation status and exploitation patterns. Results: Our synthesis reveals that some species show improvements in IUCN Red List category assessments, likely driven by recent management interventions such as species-specific reporting, catch quotas, and targeted retention bans. However, we also identify a critical mismatch between policy and biology: current Total Allowable Catches (TACs) and minimum landing sizes often do not explicitly incorporate species-specific life-history traits, inadvertently favoring smaller, less-marketable taxa while leaving larger, vulnerable species at risk. While FAO landings offer a valuable broad-scale overview of exploitation, the results highlight the limitations of aggregated fisheries statistics for species-level conservation assessments. Conclusions: These findings underline the need to adopt more precise and species-specific fisheries management approaches for Rajidae, including expanded regional monitoring programs, the use of data collected by on-board observers or electronic monitoring tools, and improved control of data reporting procedures, to prevent continued aggregation of species-level data. Full article

The floodplains of the Paraná and Paraguay rivers form the Chaco wetland, one of the most species-rich plant ecosystems in Argentina. Because wild grasses can serve as reservoirs of fungal species that cause disease and mycotoxin contamination of cereal crops, we examined asymptomatic, wild grasses from the Chaco wetlands for the presence of the genus Fusarium, which includes multiple species that cause agriculturally important diseases and/or mycotoxin contamination of crops. We focused our efforts on the identification and characterization of the multispecies lineage known as the Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC). Using morphological traits and partial DNA sequences of the TEF1 gene, we determined that 58 isolates recovered from the grasses were members of FFSC. Fifty of the isolates were identified as one of six FFSC species, including the economically important plant pathogenic species F. proliferatum, F. subglutinans, and F. verticillioides. To our knowledge, two of the species, F. anthophilum and F. pseudocircinatum, have not been reported previously in Argentina. Our analyses also indicated that eight of the FFSC isolates were a novel species, herein described as Fusarium varsavskyanum. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and genome sequence data indicate that each isolate of F. varsavskyanum isolate had only one mating type idiomorph (MAT1-1 or MAT1-2), which suggests that the fungus is heterothallic. Genome sequence analysis indicated that F. varsavskyanum has the genetic potential to produce, (i) the emerging mycotoxins fusaric acid and beauvericin (or enniatins); (ii) the pigments bikaverin, carotenoids, and fusarubin; and (iii) the plant hormones auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins. Thus, asymptomatic grasses from the Chaco wetland can harbor Fusarium species that in some agroecosystems can cause economically important diseases and/or mycotoxin contamination of crops. It remains to be determined whether the genotypes of Fusarium species that occur on the wetland grasses, including F. varsavskyanum genotypes, can negatively impact agriculture. Full article

Anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) is increasingly applied in sewage-sludge management and organic-waste treatment because it can improve methane recovery, stabilize mixed substrates, and reduce life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions under appropriate feedstock and operating conditions. However, existing reviews still focus mainly on feedstock types or isolated enhancement measures and less often connect synergistic mechanisms with engineering implementation and carbon outcomes. The specific novelty of this review is to connect functional feedstock classification, mechanism boundaries, engineering controls, and carbon-performance evaluation within one sludge-centered AcoD framework. This review synthesizes recent progress in AcoD of sewage sludge, food waste, livestock manure, crop residues, and industrial organic streams through a chain from feedstock traits to substrate interactions, microbial responses, engineering performance, and carbon benefits. Feedstocks are reorganized by function rather than by waste name, highlighting how carbon-to-nitrogen contrast, buffering capacity, hydrolysis recalcitrance, and inhibitor profiles jointly define synergy potential. Key mechanisms, including C/N balancing, hydrolysis complementarity, inhibitor mitigation, and direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET), are discussed together with their applicability limits. Representative evidence shows methane-yield or methane-production increases of about 41–55% for selected food-waste–manure blends, approximately 45% for rice–straw–pig manure systems after cellulolytic pretreatment, and approximately 16–55% for selected additive strategies; these values are illustrative rather than directly comparable because the underlying studies differ in substrates, baselines, reactor configurations, pretreatment conditions, and operating parameters. The review then translates mechanism into practice through pretreatment, reactor-selection templates, operating windows, additive reinforcement, and artificial-intelligence-assisted monitoring. Representative cases and life-cycle evidence indicate that AcoD can improve methane productivity while lowering greenhouse-gas emissions relative to landfill or mono-digestion pathways when energy substitution and nutrient recycling are credibly counted. Remaining bottlenecks include incomplete kinetic integration, limited DIET quantification, insufficient reporting of quantitative operating ranges and additive dosages, and weak coupling of carbon, economics, and regional feedstock dynamics. The revised review therefore treats AcoD as a sludge-centered mechanism-to-engineering framework and highlights two transferability gaps that require stronger standardization: biodegradation/toxicity testing and local co-substrate logistics. Full article

Plant functional traits are central to regulating ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF), yet how coordinated above- and below-ground resource acquisition strategies mediate the effects of forest structural diversity on EMF remain insufficiently understood, particularly in typical south subtropical forests. Here, we applied a trait-based framework to disentangle the pathways linking forest structural diversity to EMF through plant resource acquisition strategies. Typical south subtropical forests were sampled for community-level leaf and root traits, including leaf total nitrogen and total phosphorus content, specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, root diameter, specific root length, root tissue density, root total nitrogen and root total phosphorus content. EMF was quantified using 13 indicators associated with carbon storage, litter decomposition, primary productivity, and nutrient cycling, evaluated using both averaging and multi-threshold approaches. Principal component analysis was used to summarize trait variation along major functional axes representing the leaf and root economics spectra, and structural equation modeling was employed to quantify direct and trait-mediated pathways linking forest structural diversity to EMF. We found pronounced variation in EMF among forest types, with multifunctionality increasing along the classical fast-slow plant economics spectrum. Communities dominated by fast-growing species exhibited consistently higher EMF than those dominated by slow-growing species, with below-ground traits showing stronger associations with EMF than above-ground traits. In contrast, EMF was unrelated to the root collaboration gradient, suggesting that alternative below-ground foraging strategies contributed little to multifunctionality. Moreover, the positive effects of structural diversity on EMF were indirectly mediated through both leaf and root conservation gradients. Notably, the relative importance of these trait-mediated pathways was threshold-dependent. Root conservation gradients dominated EMF at low multifunctionality thresholds, whereas leaf conservation gradients became increasingly important at higher thresholds. Our findings show that forest structural diversity enhances ecosystem multifunctionality through coordinated leaf and root strategies. By revealing trait-mediated links between biodiversity and EMF, this study clarifies how community composition and species turnover shape multifunctionality in typical south subtropical forests. Full article

Introduction: The European catfish (Silurus glanis) has expanded rapidly across Europe, significantly impacting native freshwater biodiversity. Despite its well-documented ecological and economic effects as a top predator, reproductive biology data from non-native populations remain scarce, limiting the development of effective management strategies. Objective: This study examines key reproductive traits, sex ratio, size at first maturity, spawning period, fecundity, and oocyte diameter, of an invasive European catfish population in the Lower Tagus River (LTR), Portugal, approximately 15 years after its establishment. Methodology: A total of 674 individuals were collected monthly from January 2022 to November 2023 using electrofishing, gill nets, baited hook-lines, and catches from professional fishermen. Sex and reproductive stage were assessed via gonadal analysis. Size at first maturity was estimated using logistic regression. Fecundity was determined by the gravimetric method, and oocyte stage and diameter were assessed histologically. The gonadosomatic index (GSI) was used to characterise the reproductive cycle. Results: The sex ratio was significantly female-biased (1.4:1). Size at first maturity (TL₅₀) was 72.9 cm TL for females and 68.8 cm TL for males. The spawning season extended from February to June, coinciding with water temperatures of 11–23 °C, with the highest GSI values reported to date for this species (GSI max = 22.5%). Histological analysis confirmed asynchronous oocyte development. Absolute fecundity ranged from 8364 to 319,000 oocytes per female and was positively correlated with total length and body weight. Mean mature oocyte diameter ranged from 1.50 to 3.21 mm. Conclusions: The European catfish in the LTR exhibits high reproductive plasticity, early maturity, a prolonged spawning season, and elevated fecundity, likely facilitated by warm water temperatures and abundant prey resources. Crucially, these parameters reveal earlier maturation and greater reproductive investment relative to native populations, demonstrating an extreme phenotypic plasticity characteristic of successful invasions in southern European aquatic ecosystems. These findings provide essential biological parameters for targeted management, including selective removal of large females, intensified fishing effort during the spawning season, and population monitoring to prevent compensatory reproductive responses. Full article

Background: The Taiwanese loach (Paramisgurnus dabryanus ssp. Taiwan, Dabry de Thiersant, 1872.) is an economically important aquaculture species in East Asia, and its body color directly affects its ornamental and market value. Our research group recently discovered a golden-red mutant, named “Gan Hong No. 1” (MR), within a wild-type (WT) population. During embryogenesis, MR individuals exhibit almost no melanophore deposition, and after hatching, xanthophores and erythrophores appear sequentially, suggesting that the body color variation likely originates from alterations in the gene regulatory network during early development. Objective: To systematically compare the transcriptomes of WT and MR-Taiwanese loach during early development, to identify the key regulatory pathways underlying red body color formation from a temporal perspective, to test whether the classical melanin synthesis pathway is impaired, and to provide a theoretical basis for selective breeding of body color traits. Methods: High-throughput transcriptome sequencing was performed on eight early developmental stages (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 23, 28 and 43 h post-fertilization) of both loach types. Differential expression analysis, time-series trend analysis, and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment were used to systematically characterize gene expression dynamics. Transcriptomic data validation was performed using real-time PCR. Results: In MR, the core transcription factor mitfa was significantly downregulated, whereas the expression of melanin synthesis genes such as kita and dct showed no significant difference, indicating that the impairment of melanogenesis is caused by mitfa downregulation. Trend analysis and pathway enrichment revealed that in MR embryos, pathways related to oxidative stress, unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis, C-type lectin receptor signaling, p53 signaling, and apoptosis were significantly activated, while the thyroid hormone synthesis pathway was markedly upregulated. In WT, these pathways showed the opposite trend. qRT-PCR results were consistent with the transcriptome data. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that downregulation of mitfa serves as the initial trigger for red body color variation in the Taiwanese loach. This mutation impedes melanin synthesis and concurrently activates a coordinated regulatory network involving oxidative stress, immune inflammation, and thyroid hormone signaling. Accumulation of unsaturated fatty acids alleviates oxidative damage and supports carotenoid deposition, while immune signals eliminate aberrant melanocytes and promote compensatory generation of red and yellow chromatophores. The upregulated thyroid hormone further fine-tunes pigment cell differentiation. For the first time in a cobitid species, this study elucidates the mitfa-mediated, multi-pathway synergistic molecular mechanism driving the transition from melanin-based to carotenoid/pteridine-based red coloration in fish, thereby providing a theoretical reference for molecular breeding of body color in aquaculture. Full article

Pinus massoniana Lamb. is an important native economic and ecological tree species in southern China. However, adventitious root regeneration severely restricts the asexual propagation of elite traits. The WOX gene family, a plant-specific transcription factor family, plays critical roles in various aspects of plant growth and development, particularly in root development, including the maintenance of the root apical meristem, root elongation, and the initiation and formation of lateral roots. In this study, a total of 21 WOX family proteins were identified from the genome of P. massoniana and designated as PmWOX1 to PmWOX21 based on their chromosomal locations. These 21 members were unevenly distributed across nine chromosomes, with a clustered distribution observed on chr7. Collinearity analysis suggested that gene duplication and purifying selection may serve as key driving forces in the evolution of WOX genes. Conserved motif analysis revealed divergence among different PmWOX clades, implying distinct functions in growth and development. Cis-element analysis indicated that PmWOX genes may be involved in the regulation of stress responses, hormone signaling, and developmental processes. Expression pattern analysis based on transcriptome data from root tips and shoot tips identified nine PmWOX genes with significantly higher expression in root tips. RT-qPCR further screened PmWOX4, which exhibited the highest expression in root primordia. Functional experiments verified that PmWOX4 genes encoded nuclear-localized proteins with transcriptional activity. The PPI results indicate that PmWOX4 may interact with CLE41/44, LBD, ATHB8 and CLV3/CLV1 to regulate adventitious root formation. Collectively, our findings suggest that PmWOX4 possesses functional potential in adventitious rooting, which could be further exploited to improve the efficiency of asexual propagation in P. massoniana. Full article