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Keywords = cytoadhesion

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13 pages, 1081 KiB  
Article
Effect of Black Garlic Consumption on Endothelial Function and Lipid Profile: A Before-and-After Study in Hypercholesterolemic and Non-Hypercholesterolemic Subjects
by Débora Villaño, Javier Marhuenda, Raúl Arcusa, José Manuel Moreno-Rojas, Begoña Cerdá, Gema Pereira-Caro and Pilar Zafrilla
Nutrients 2023, 15(14), 3138; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15143138 - 14 Jul 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6349
Abstract
Background: Black garlic is obtained from raw garlic (Allium sativum L.), by a fermentation process, under humidity and heat treatment, showing a high concentration of organosulfur compounds, which have been related to benefits in the prevention or delay of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). [...] Read more.
Background: Black garlic is obtained from raw garlic (Allium sativum L.), by a fermentation process, under humidity and heat treatment, showing a high concentration of organosulfur compounds, which have been related to benefits in the prevention or delay of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). The objective of the research was to evaluate whether long-term consumption of black garlic improves endothelial function and lipid profile in subjects with hypercholesterolemia. Methods: Single center, controlled clinical trial with two branches: Hypercholesterolemia vs. Healthy condition. Sixty-two subjects of both sexes were distributed in two groups, the hypercholesterolemia group (n = 31) (total cholesterol (TC) range 200–300 mg/dL and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol range 135–175 mg/dL) and the healthy group (n = 31). The intervention consisted of the ingestion of 4 cloves of black garlic (12 g) daily for 12 weeks. Results: significant increases in Apolipoprotein (Apo)A1 occurred in both groups: Hypercholesterolemia (Δ 11.8 mg/dL p < 0.001) vs Healthy (Δ 11.1 mg/dL p < 0.001). Besides, significant reductions for endothelial adhesion molecules monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) (Δ −121.5 pg/mL p = 0.007 vs. Δ −56.3 pg/mL p = 0.015), intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) (Δ −39.3 ng/mL p < 0.001 vs. Δ 63.5 ng/mL p < 0.001), and vascular cyto-adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) (Δ −144.4 ng/mL p < 0.001 vs. Δ −83.4 ng/mL p = 0.061) were observed, for hypercholesterolemic and healthy subjects, respectively. Conclusions: These data show that black garlic consumption could improve some parameters related to endothelial function and lipid profile, which may have a favorable impact on the risk of CVDs, although more long-term studies are necessary to confirm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gene-Diet Interactions and Cardiometabolic Health)
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15 pages, 1424 KiB  
Review
Infection, Transmission, Pathogenesis and Vaccine Development against Mycoplasma gallisepticum
by Susithra Priyadarshni Mugunthan, Ganapathy Kannan, Harish Mani Chandra and Biswaranjan Paital
Vaccines 2023, 11(2), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11020469 - 17 Feb 2023
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 9846
Abstract
Mycoplasma sp. comprises cell wall-less bacteria with reduced genome size and can infect mammals, reptiles, birds, and plants. Avian mycoplasmosis, particularly in chickens, is primarily caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) and Mycoplasma synoviae. It causes infection and pathology mainly in the respiratory, [...] Read more.
Mycoplasma sp. comprises cell wall-less bacteria with reduced genome size and can infect mammals, reptiles, birds, and plants. Avian mycoplasmosis, particularly in chickens, is primarily caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) and Mycoplasma synoviae. It causes infection and pathology mainly in the respiratory, reproductive, and musculoskeletal systems. MG is the most widely distributed pathogenic avian mycoplasma with a wide range of host susceptibility and virulence. MG is transmitted both by horizontal and vertical routes. MG infection induces innate, cellular, mucosal, and adaptive immune responses in the host. Macrophages aid in phagocytosis and clearance, and B and T cells play critical roles in the clearance and prevention of MG. The virulent factors of MG are adhesion proteins, lipoproteins, heat shock proteins, and antigenic variation proteins, all of which play pivotal roles in host cell entry and pathogenesis. Prevention of MG relies on farm and flock biosecurity, management strategies, early diagnosis, use of antimicrobials, and vaccination. This review summarizes the vital pathogenic mechanisms underlying MG infection and recapitulates the virulence factors of MG–host cell adhesion, antigenic variation, nutrient transport, and immune evasion. The review also highlights the limitations of current vaccines and the development of innovative future vaccines against MG. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccines for Chicken)
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16 pages, 3406 KiB  
Review
CD36—A Host Receptor Necessary for Malaria Parasites to Establish and Maintain Infection
by Anna Bachmann, Nahla Galal Metwally, Johannes Allweier, Jakob Cronshagen, Maria del Pilar Martinez Tauler, Agnes Murk, Lisa Katharina Roth, Hanifeh Torabi, Yifan Wu, Thomas Gutsmann and Iris Bruchhaus
Microorganisms 2022, 10(12), 2356; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10122356 - 29 Nov 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3131
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (PfIEs) present P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 proteins (PfEMP1s) on the cell surface, via which they cytoadhere to various endothelial cell receptors (ECRs) on the walls of human blood vessels. This prevents the parasite [...] Read more.
Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (PfIEs) present P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 proteins (PfEMP1s) on the cell surface, via which they cytoadhere to various endothelial cell receptors (ECRs) on the walls of human blood vessels. This prevents the parasite from passing through the spleen, which would lead to its elimination. Each P. falciparum isolate has about 60 different PfEMP1s acting as ligands, and at least 24 ECRs have been identified as interaction partners. Interestingly, in every parasite genome sequenced to date, at least 75% of the encoded PfEMP1s have a binding domain for the scavenger receptor CD36 widely distributed on host endothelial cells and many other cell types. Here, we discuss why the interaction between PfIEs and CD36 is optimal to maintain a finely regulated equilibrium that allows the parasite to multiply and spread while causing minimal harm to the host in most infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plasmodium falciparum: Host-Parasite Interaction)
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17 pages, 4157 KiB  
Article
Ectopic Expression of Plasmodium vivax vir Genes in P. falciparum Affects Cytoadhesion via Increased Expression of Specific var Genes
by Torben Rehn, Pedro Lubiana, Thi Huyen Trang Nguyen, Eva Pansegrau, Marius Schmitt, Lisa Katharina Roth, Jana Brehmer, Thomas Roeder, Dániel Cadar, Nahla Galal Metwally and Iris Bruchhaus
Microorganisms 2022, 10(6), 1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10061183 - 9 Jun 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2946
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (PfIEs) adhere to endothelial cell receptors (ECRs) of blood vessels mainly via PfEMP1 proteins to escape elimination via the spleen. Evidence suggests that P. vivax-infected reticulocytes (PvIRs) also bind to ECRs, presumably enabled [...] Read more.
Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (PfIEs) adhere to endothelial cell receptors (ECRs) of blood vessels mainly via PfEMP1 proteins to escape elimination via the spleen. Evidence suggests that P. vivax-infected reticulocytes (PvIRs) also bind to ECRs, presumably enabled by VIR proteins, as shown by inhibition experiments and studies with transgenic P. falciparum expressing vir genes. To test this hypothesis, our study investigated the involvement of VIR proteins in cytoadhesion using vir gene-expressing P. falciparum transfectants. Those VIR proteins with a putative transmembrane domain were present in Maurer’s clefts, and some were also present in the erythrocyte membrane. The VIR protein without a transmembrane domain (PVX_050690) was not exported. Five of the transgenic P. falciparum cell lines, including the one expressing PVX_050690, showed binding to CD36. We observed highly increased expression of specific var genes encoding PfEMP1s in all CD36-binding transfectants. These results suggest that ectopic vir expression regulates var expression through a yet unknown mechanism. In conclusion, the observed cytoadhesion of P. falciparum expressing vir genes depended on PfEMP1s, making this experimental unsuitable for characterizing VIR proteins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plasmodium falciparum: Host-Parasite Interaction)
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11 pages, 2292 KiB  
Article
Immunization against a Conserved Surface Polysaccharide Stimulates Bovine Antibodies with Opsonic Killing Activity but Does Not Protect against Babesia bovis Challenge
by Naomi S. Taus, Colette Cywes-Bentley, Wendell C. Johnson, Gerald B. Pier, Lindsay M. Fry, Michelle R. Mousel and Massaro W. Ueti
Pathogens 2021, 10(12), 1598; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10121598 - 9 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2995
Abstract
Arthropod-borne apicomplexan pathogens remain a great concern and challenge for disease control in animals and humans. In order to prevent Babesia infection, the discovery of antigens that elicit protective immunity is essential to establish approaches to stop disease dissemination. In this study, we [...] Read more.
Arthropod-borne apicomplexan pathogens remain a great concern and challenge for disease control in animals and humans. In order to prevent Babesia infection, the discovery of antigens that elicit protective immunity is essential to establish approaches to stop disease dissemination. In this study, we determined that poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG) is conserved among tick-borne pathogens including B. bovis, B. bigemina, B. divergens, B. microti, and Babesia WA1. Calves immunized with synthetic ß-(1→6)-linked glucosamine oligosaccharides conjugated to tetanus toxoid (5GlcNH2-TT) developed antibodies with in vitro opsonophagocytic activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Sera from immunized calves reacted to B. bovis. These results suggest strong immune responses against PNAG. However, 5GlcNH2-TT-immunized bovines challenged with B. bovis developed acute babesiosis with the cytoadhesion of infected erythrocytes to brain capillary vessels. While this antigen elicited antibodies that did not prevent disease, we are continuing to explore other antigens that may mitigate these vector-borne diseases for the cattle industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Parasitic Pathogens)
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20 pages, 3242 KiB  
Article
Altered Cytokine Response of Human Brain Endothelial Cells after Stimulation with Malaria Patient Plasma
by Michaela Raacke, Amy Kerr, Michael Dörpinghaus, Jana Brehmer, Yifan Wu, Stephan Lorenzen, Christine Fink, Thomas Jacobs, Thomas Roeder, Julie Sellau, Anna Bachmann, Nahla Galal Metwally and Iris Bruchhaus
Cells 2021, 10(7), 1656; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10071656 - 1 Jul 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4813
Abstract
Infections with the deadliest malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, are accompanied by a strong immunological response of the human host. To date, more than 30 cytokines have been detected in elevated levels in plasma of malaria patients compared to healthy controls. Endothelial cells [...] Read more.
Infections with the deadliest malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, are accompanied by a strong immunological response of the human host. To date, more than 30 cytokines have been detected in elevated levels in plasma of malaria patients compared to healthy controls. Endothelial cells (ECs) are a potential source of these cytokines, but so far it is not known if their cytokine secretion depends on the direct contact of the P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes (IEs) with ECs in terms of cytoadhesion. Culturing ECs with plasma from malaria patients (27 returning travellers) resulted in significantly increased secretion of IL-11, CXCL5, CXCL8, CXCL10, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and angiopoietin-like protein 4 (ANGPTL4) if compared to matching controls (22 healthy individuals). The accompanying transcriptome study of the ECs identified 43 genes that were significantly increased in expression (≥1.7 fold) after co-incubation with malaria patient plasma, including cxcl5 and angptl4. Further bioinformatic analyses revealed that biological processes such as cell migration, cell proliferation and tube development were particularly affected in these ECs. It can thus be postulated that not only the cytoadhesion of IEs, but also molecules in the plasma of malaria patients exerts an influence on ECs, and that not only the immunological response but also other processes, such as angiogenesis, are altered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Cellular Immunology)
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16 pages, 2748 KiB  
Article
Small Molecule Compounds Identified from Mixture-Based Library Inhibit Binding between Plasmodium falciparum Infected Erythrocytes and Endothelial Receptor ICAM-1
by Olga Chesnokov, Pimnitah Visitdesotrakul, Komal Kalani, Adel Nefzi and Andrew V. Oleinikov
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(11), 5659; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22115659 - 26 May 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2882
Abstract
Specific adhesion of P. falciparum parasite-infected erythrocytes (IE) in deep vascular beds can result in severe complications, such as cerebral malaria, placental malaria, respiratory distress, and severe anemia. Cerebral malaria and severe malaria syndromes were associated previously with sequestration of IE to a [...] Read more.
Specific adhesion of P. falciparum parasite-infected erythrocytes (IE) in deep vascular beds can result in severe complications, such as cerebral malaria, placental malaria, respiratory distress, and severe anemia. Cerebral malaria and severe malaria syndromes were associated previously with sequestration of IE to a microvasculature receptor ICAM-1. The screening of Torrey Pines Scaffold Ranking library, which consists of more than 30 million compounds designed around 75 molecular scaffolds, identified small molecules that inhibit cytoadhesion of ICAM-1-binding IE to surface-immobilized receptor at IC50 range down to ~350 nM. With their low cytotoxicity toward erythrocytes and human endothelial cells, these molecules might be suitable for development into potentially effective adjunct anti-adhesion drugs to treat cerebral and/or severe malaria syndromes. Our two-step high-throughput screening approach is specifically designed to work with compound mixtures to make screening and deconvolution to single active compounds fast and efficient. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biochemistry)
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17 pages, 9860 KiB  
Article
Stringent Selection of Knobby Plasmodium falciparum-Infected Erythrocytes during Cytoadhesion at Febrile Temperature
by Michael Dörpinghaus, Finn Fürstenwerth, Lisa K. Roth, Philip Bouws, Maximilian Rakotonirinalalao, Vincent Jordan, Michaela Sauer, Torben Rehn, Eva Pansegrau, Katharina Höhn, Paolo Mesén-Ramírez, Anna Bachmann, Stephan Lorenzen, Thomas Roeder, Nahla Galal Metwally and Iris Bruchhaus
Microorganisms 2020, 8(2), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8020174 - 25 Jan 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6157
Abstract
Changes in the erythrocyte membrane induced by Plasmodium falciparum invasion allow cytoadhesion of infected erythrocytes (IEs) to the host endothelium, which can lead to severe complications. Binding to endothelial cell receptors (ECRs) is mainly mediated by members of the P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane [...] Read more.
Changes in the erythrocyte membrane induced by Plasmodium falciparum invasion allow cytoadhesion of infected erythrocytes (IEs) to the host endothelium, which can lead to severe complications. Binding to endothelial cell receptors (ECRs) is mainly mediated by members of the P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) family, encoded by var genes. Malaria infection causes several common symptoms, with fever being the most apparent. In this study, the effects of febrile conditions on cytoadhesion of predominately knobless erythrocytes infected with the laboratory isolate IT4 to chondroitin-4-sulfate A (CSA), intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), and CD36 were investigated. IEs enriched for binding to CSA at 40 °C exhibited significantly increased binding capacity relative to parasites enriched at 37 °C. This interaction was due to increased var2csa expression and trafficking of the corresponding PfEMP1 to the IE surface as well as to a selection of knobby IEs. Furthermore, the enrichment of IEs to ICAM-1 at 40 °C also led to selection of knobby IEs over knobless IEs, whereas enrichment on CD36 did not lead to a selection. In summary, these findings demonstrate that knobs are crucial for parasitic survival in the host, especially during fever episodes, and thus, that selection pressure on the formation of knobs could be controlled by the host. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Host–Microbe Interactions in Animal/Human Health and Disease)
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15 pages, 3124 KiB  
Article
Mbov_0503 Encodes a Novel Cytoadhesin that Facilitates Mycoplasma bovis Interaction with Tight Junctions
by Xifang Zhu, Yaqi Dong, Eric Baranowski, Xixi Li, Gang Zhao, Zhiyu Hao, Hui Zhang, Yingyu Chen, Changmin Hu, Huanchun Chen, Christine Citti and Aizhen Guo
Microorganisms 2020, 8(2), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8020164 - 23 Jan 2020
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3700
Abstract
Molecules contributing to microbial cytoadhesion are important virulence factors. In Mycoplasma bovis, a minimal bacterium but an important cattle pathogen, binding to host cells is emerging as a complex process involving a broad range of surface-exposed structures. Here, a new cytoadhesin of [...] Read more.
Molecules contributing to microbial cytoadhesion are important virulence factors. In Mycoplasma bovis, a minimal bacterium but an important cattle pathogen, binding to host cells is emerging as a complex process involving a broad range of surface-exposed structures. Here, a new cytoadhesin of M. bovis was identified by producing a collection of individual knock-out mutants and evaluating their binding to embryonic bovine lung cells. The cytoadhesive-properties of this surface-exposed protein, which is encoded by Mbov_0503 in strain HB0801, were demonstrated at both the mycoplasma cell and protein levels using confocal microscopy and ELISA. Although Mbov_0503 disruption was only associated in M. bovis with a partial reduction of its binding capacity, this moderate effect was sufficient to affect M. bovis interaction with the host-cell tight junctions, and to reduce the translocation of this mycoplasma across epithelial cell monolayers. Besides demonstrating the capacity of M. bovis to disrupt tight junctions, these results identified novel properties associated with cytoadhesin that might contribute to virulence and host colonization. These findings provide new insights into the complex interplay taking place between wall-less mycoplasmas and the host-cell surface. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Microbiology and Immunology)
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13 pages, 1885 KiB  
Review
Interplay between Attenuation- and Virulence-Factors of Babesia bovis and Their Contribution to the Establishment of Persistent Infections in Cattle
by Gina M. Gallego-Lopez, Brian M. Cooke and Carlos E. Suarez
Pathogens 2019, 8(3), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8030097 - 4 Jul 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 11106
Abstract
Bovine babesiosis is an acute and persistent tick-borne global disease caused mainly by the intraerythrocytic apicomplexan parasites Babesia bovis and B. bigemina. B. bovis infected erythrocytes sequester in blood capillaries of the host (cytoadhesion), causing malaria-like neurological signs. Cytoadhesion and antigenic variation [...] Read more.
Bovine babesiosis is an acute and persistent tick-borne global disease caused mainly by the intraerythrocytic apicomplexan parasites Babesia bovis and B. bigemina. B. bovis infected erythrocytes sequester in blood capillaries of the host (cytoadhesion), causing malaria-like neurological signs. Cytoadhesion and antigenic variation in B. bovis are linked to the expression of members of the Variant Erythrocyte Surface Antigen (VESA) gene family. Animals that survive acute B. bovis infection and those vaccinated with attenuated strains remain persistently infected, suggesting that B. bovis parasites use immune escape mechanisms. However, attenuated B. bovis parasites do not cause neurological signs in vaccinated animals, indicating that virulence or attenuation factors play roles in modulating parasite virulence phenotypes. Artificial overexpression of the SBP2t11 protein, a defined attenuation factor, was associated with reduced cytoadhesion, suggesting a role for this protein as a key modulator of virulence in the parasite. Hereby, we propose a model that might be functional in the modulation of B. bovis virulence and persistence that relies on the interplay among SBP2t, VESA proteins, cytoadhesion, and the immune responses of the host. Elucidation of mechanisms used by the parasite to establish persistent infection will likely contribute to the design of new methods for the control of bovine babesiosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Persistence in Babesia)
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15 pages, 1425 KiB  
Review
Variable and Variant Protein Multigene Families in Babesia bovis Persistence
by David R. Allred
Pathogens 2019, 8(2), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8020076 - 11 Jun 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4724
Abstract
Cattle infected with Babesia bovis face a bifurcated fate: Either die of the severe acute infection, or survive and carry for many years a highly persistent but generally asymptomatic infection. In this review, the author describes known and potential contributions of three variable [...] Read more.
Cattle infected with Babesia bovis face a bifurcated fate: Either die of the severe acute infection, or survive and carry for many years a highly persistent but generally asymptomatic infection. In this review, the author describes known and potential contributions of three variable or highly variant multigene-encoded families of proteins to persistence in the bovine host, and the mechanisms by which variability arises among these families. Ramifications arising from this variability are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Persistence in Babesia)
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13 pages, 963 KiB  
Article
Lectin-Grafted PLGA Microcarriers Loaded with Fluorescent Model Drugs: Characteristics, Release Profiles, and Cytoadhesion Studies
by Xue-Yan WANG, Romana KOLLER, Michael WIRTH and Franz GABOR
Sci. Pharm. 2014, 82(1), 193-206; https://doi.org/10.3797/scipharm.1312-08 - 8 Feb 2014
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1634
Abstract
PLGA microparticles loaded with three different fluorescent model drugs, fluorescein sodium (hydrophilic), sulforhodamine (amphoteric), and boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY® 493/503, lipophilic), were prepared by the solvent evaporation technique. Due to varying hydrophilicity, the diameters of the microparticles ranged between 4.1 and 4.7 μm. According [...] Read more.
PLGA microparticles loaded with three different fluorescent model drugs, fluorescein sodium (hydrophilic), sulforhodamine (amphoteric), and boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY® 493/503, lipophilic), were prepared by the solvent evaporation technique. Due to varying hydrophilicity, the diameters of the microparticles ranged between 4.1 and 4.7 μm. According to fluorimetric analysis, the loading varied from 0.06 to 2.25 μg of the model drug per mg PLGA. In terms of the release profile, the fluorescein sodium-entrapped formulation exhibited thermo-responsive release kinetics. In the case of sulforhodamine- and BODIPY® 493/503-loaded particles, almost no release was observed, neither at 4°C nor 37°C during the first 50 hours. Furthermore, to estimate the bioadhesive properties of such drug delivery systems, the surface of the loaded particles was grafted with wheat germ agglutinin by applying the carbodiimide method. Cytoadhesion studies with Caco-2 monolayers revealed an up to 1.9-fold and 3.6-fold increase in the bioadhesion of the lectin-functionalized, model drug-loaded particles as compared to the albumin- and non-grafted microcarriers, respectively. All in all, the results clearly indicated that the lipophilicity of the polymer matching that of the drug favored entrapment, whereas mismatching impeded loading into the PLGA-microparticles. Even in the case of low loading, these delivery systems might be useful for the fluorescent detections and microscopic imaging of cellular interactions due to their fluorescent properties and lack of dye leakage. Moreover, lectin grafting can mediate bioadhesive properties to such particulate drug carriers which could be a promising approach to improve drug delivery. Full article
1 pages, 198 KiB  
Abstract
Influence of Microplate Mixing on Binding Assays
by C. FILLAFER, R. NOWOTNY, M. WIRTH and F. GABOR
Sci. Pharm. 2009, 77(6), 189; https://doi.org/10.3797/scipharm.oephg.21.SL-22 - 16 Apr 2009
Viewed by 872
Abstract
Introduction: Microplate-based analytical assays represent one of the most commonly used tools for the sensitive and reproducible detection of bioactive molecules. However, despite the widespread use of microplate assays, the degree of optimisation of the experimental procedures is questionable [1]. Effective mixing is [...] Read more.
Introduction: Microplate-based analytical assays represent one of the most commonly used tools for the sensitive and reproducible detection of bioactive molecules. However, despite the widespread use of microplate assays, the degree of optimisation of the experimental procedures is questionable [1]. Effective mixing is expected to shorten incubation periods, increase reproducibility and sensitivity. To investigate this, the association of cytoadhesive lectins and lectin-modified nanoparticles to epithelial cell monolayers was determined under stationary and mixing conditions. Full article
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