Search Results (702)

Bone defects from trauma, tumour resection, infection, and degenerative disease remain a major clinical burden, and autografts face limitations of supply and donor-site morbidity. Three-dimensional (3D) printing offers a route to patient-specific, architecturally defined bone scaffolds, while biopolymers from natural sources provide biodegradability, biocompatibility, and extracellular matrix-mimicking cues consistent with sustainable, green biomaterials science. This review synthesises recent progress in 3D printing of biopolymer-based scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. We first examine the principal feedstocks—alginate, gelatin and gelatin methacryloyl, collagen, chitosan, silk fibroin, cellulose, and microbial polyesters—and their preparation, crosslinking chemistry, and printability. We then compare extrusion, light-based, and indirect printing technologies and the process–property relationships governing resolution, mechanical competence, and cell viability. Composite and functionalisation strategies, including biopolymer–bioceramic hybrids and controlled delivery of growth factors and antimicrobial agents, are analysed as routes to osteoinduction, vascularisation, and infection control. Finally, we evaluate translational performance in preclinical models and outline central challenges of vascularisation, mechanical–degradation matching, scalability, and regulatory standardisation. Biopolymer 3D printing is positioned as a ve rsatile, sustainable platform whose clinical maturation depends on integrated material, structural, and biological design. Full article

This study evaluates the intrinsic osteogenic potential of β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP)-containing composite scaffolds (PLCL–TCP, PLGA–TCP, and ZnO–TCP) on chorion-derived mesenchymal stem cells (CMSCs) under non-osteogenic in vitro conditions. CMSCs were cultured on the three biomaterials for 35 days without osteogenic supplements to isolate the material-driven cellular response. Cell viability was assessed via MTT assay, while osteogenesis-associated markers (alkaline phosphatase, type I collagen, and osteocalcin) were quantified using ELISA. Scaffold surface morphology and elemental composition were characterized before and after cultivation utilizing SEM and EDX. All investigated scaffolds supported long-term CMSC viability and induced measurable osteogenic responses. PLCL–TCP demonstrated a consistently strong biological response, characterized by sustained metabolic activity, elevated ALP and COL I production, and increased osteocalcin levels at later stages of cultivation. ZnO–TCP also exhibited favorable osteogenesis-associated responses, particularly with respect to late-stage osteocalcin production, while maintaining high structural stability. In conclusion, β-TCP composites can intrinsically modulate CMSC behavior without biochemical supplements. Osteogenic outcomes depend on a complex interplay of surface chemistry, scaffold architecture, and degradation profiles, with PLCL–TCP demonstrating favorable overall performance among the investigated biomaterials. Full article

The vitreous body is not only a transparent filling material of the posterior segment; it is a soft, hydrated, and biologically active matrix that supports structural, optical, and biochemical homeostasis. Vitrectomy therefore leaves a functional deficit that current substitutes only partly address. Intraocular gases, silicone oils, and perfluorocarbon liquids remain essential surgical tools, but they mainly provide mechanical tamponade and do not reproduce native viscoelasticity, diffusion control, or protection against oxidative and inflammatory stress. This review considers vitreous replacement as a functional biomaterials challenge. We discuss native vitreous physiology, the limitations of present tamponade agents, and emerging bioengineered substitutes designed to create a more physiological intravitreal environment. Particular attention is given to hydrogel and polymer-based systems, especially hyaluronic acid-based and in situ crosslinked platforms, which are being developed to combine optical clarity, injectability, soft mechanical support, controlled degradation, and favorable tissue interaction. We also emphasize the need for standardized preclinical testing of swelling, enzymatic stability, drug diffusion, rheology, and long-term biocompatibility. Although next-generation materials may move the field beyond passive space filling, manufacturing reproducibility, regulatory validation, chronic safety, and cautious early-phase trials remain major translational barriers. Full article

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are bio-based, biodegradable polyesters increasingly explored as sustainable biomaterials for regenerative medicine. This review summarizes recent advances in PHA-based bone substitute materials, highlighting their properties, fabrication methods, and biological performance. PHAs combine biocompatibility, tunable mechanical behavior, and degradation into non-toxic metabolites, while copolymerization and monomer selection modulate the stiffness, crystallinity, and resorption rate. Processing techniques such as solvent casting, electrospinning, and additive manufacturing allow the production of porous architectures that mimic bone extracellular matrix. Electrospinning is particularly suitable for nanoscale fibrous matrices, whereas 3D printing enables patient-specific scaffolds with controlled geometry and interconnected porosity. Scaffold performance can be further improved through the incorporation of osteoconductive fillers, including hydroxyapatite, β-tricalcium phosphate, bioactive glasses, graphene oxide, and carbon nanotubes, as well as through drug-delivery and pro-angiogenic functionalization. In vitro and in vivo studies consistently report favorable cytocompatibility, enhanced osteogenic differentiation, vascularization, and effective repair of bone defects in animal models. However, clinical translation remains limited by production costs, variability in polymer quality, thermal processing constraints, and regulatory challenges. Future progress will rely on more efficient biosynthesis, medical-grade purification, multifunctional scaffold design, and stronger collaboration between academia, industry, and clinicians to unlock the full potential of PHAs in regenerative bone therapies. Full article

Periodontal disease remains one of the leading causes of tooth loss worldwide, highlighting the need for effective regeneration of alveolar bone, periodontal ligament, and cementum. The structural complexity and unique biological behavior of these tissues have historically posed significant challenges for clinical regeneration strategies. The primary therapeutic approach used is guided bone regeneration; however, it has certain limitations, such as morbidity, low structural integrity and dimensional stability. Recent advances in 3-dimensional (3D) bioprinting have made it possible to fabricate customized scaffolds with precise architecture and spatial organization that closely mimic normal periodontal structures. The incorporation of multifunctional nanocomposite biomaterials and nanoparticles further enhances the performance of the scaffolds by increasing mechanical strength, bioactivity and controlling degradation rates. These advanced scaffolds function as dynamic microenvironments that support cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation, ultimately promoting tissue regeneration. Furthermore, their multifunctional properties allow for the controlled release of growth factors, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial agents, as well as the incorporation of stem cells and bioactive molecules that facilitate angiogenesis. This review investigates and critically evaluates modern approaches for the regeneration of periodontal tissues through scaffolds, biomaterials and 3D bioprinting technologies, as well as to assess their effectiveness compared to established clinical practices. Full article

Magnesium-based membranes are promising biomaterials for guided bone regeneration due to their unique properties of mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and controlled biodegradation. This scoping review aimed to map and synthesize the available evidence regarding the use of magnesium-based membranes and fixation screws in alveolar ridge regeneration and guided bone regeneration procedures. Relevant studies were identified through a literature search conducted from November 2025 to May 2026, using several databases following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines. Thirty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria, including in vitro studies, preclinical animal studies, clinical case reports and case series, and narrative or systematic reviews. In vitro studies demonstrated cytocompatibility and fibroblast adhesion, while moderate magnesium ion concentrations increased markers of osteogenic differentiation. Preclinical animal studies reported controlled degradation, biocompatible tissue responses, maintenance of barrier function during early healing, and findings suggesting potential osteogenic stimulation. Clinical evidence, limited to case reports and small case series, described the use of magnesium membranes in horizontal and vertical ridge augmentation, sinus lift procedures, immediate dentoalveolar regeneration, periodontal defects, and cystic lesions, with generally uneventful healing outcomes and preserved bone volume. Reported complications were mainly minor and included transient soft tissue reactions, membrane exposure, and localized gas cavity formation. However, the available evidence remains limited to low-level studies without controlled clinical trials. Current findings are insufficient to establish clinical efficacy or superiority over conventional membranes, highlighting the need for larger prospective controlled studies. The review’s findings could help researchers advance the understanding of bone regeneration and help develop new strategies to improve and further investigate bone regeneration. Full article

Programmable peptide hydrogels represent advanced supramolecular biomaterials featured with customizable molecular sequences and tunable self-assembly behaviors, which can biomimetically reconstruct the structural and microenvironmental complexity of native extracellular matrix. This review systematically elaborates the molecular engineering advances of programmable peptide hydrogels following a hierarchical logic from fundamental mechanisms to translational applications. We first interpret the intrinsic self-assembly mechanisms driven by non-covalent interactions and the regulatory effects of typical external microenvironmental stimuli. On this basis, we summarize core rational design principles, covering stimuli-responsive structural optimization, biofunctional modification, and the tunable regulation of physical properties, degradability and immunogenicity. Furthermore, we correlate multi-scale structural features (nanostructures, porous architecture and mechanical properties) with their versatile biomedical functions, and comprehensively discuss their cutting-edge applications in tissue regeneration, targeted drug and gene delivery, cell-mediated therapy, immunomodulation, and anti-infective treatment. Finally, we identify critical translational barriers including batch-to-batch inconsistency, immunogenic risks, and in vivo performance instability, and highlight future directions involving multi-stimuli-responsive systems, artificial intelligence-assisted design, computational modeling, and hybrid material construction. This work systematically clarifies the structure–property–function relationship of peptide hydrogels, and underscores their great potential as next-generation platforms for precision regenerative medicine and targeted disease intervention. Full article

Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (TERM) rely on advanced biomaterials and scaffolds that require strict sterilization without sacrificing their structural and functional properties. Conventional sterilization methods, including steam, ethylene oxide, and gamma irradiation, often compromise scaffold integrity, alter surface chemistry and/or leave toxic residues. Ozone (O₃) has emerged as a promising alternative sterilant because of its strong oxidizing potential, broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, and residue-free decomposition. Importantly, ozone sterilization can preserve—and in some cases enhance—scaffold bioactivity by maintaining cytocompatibility and favorable surface chemistries that support cell adhesion and differentiation. This review critically evaluates the role of ozone sterilization in the context of TERM applications, focusing on its physicochemical properties, disinfection kinetics, material compatibility and regulatory perspectives. Evidence from studies on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) scaffolds, bone implants, and hydrogel-based systems suggests that, under optimized conditions, ozone can achieve high sterilization efficacy without significant degradation of mechanical or chemical properties. However, challenges related to process validation, health and safety considerations, and scalability remain. The review highlights opportunities for integrating ozone into automated biomanufacturing workflows and identifies key research gaps to support the broader adoption of ozone sterilization in TERM applications. Full article

Bone loss in the maxillofacial region arises from multiple causes, including periodontal disease, trauma, surgical procedures, infection, congenital anomalies, and cancer. Traditional treatment relies on bone grafting, either alone or in combination with biomaterials. Advances in tissue engineering have introduced synthetic or natural scaffolds to mimic the mineralized bone matrix. Natural scaffolds offer excellent biocompatibility and similarity to native tissue but often lack sufficient mechanical strength and exhibit poor degradation rates. Synthetic scaffolds provide tunable porosity and mechanical stability; however, their biological inertness makes them poor sources of osteogenic signaling. A key factor in the success of any scaffold is its interaction with the host immune system. Upon implantation, the innate immune response is initiated, with neutrophils and macrophages being the first cells to contact the scaffold. Macrophage polarization toward proinflammatory (M1) or anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotypes determines whether the microenvironment favors inflammation or remodeling. The adaptive immune response also plays a critical role: T and B lymphocytes may promote tolerance and integration through Th2/Treg pathways and antibody-mediated regulation, or they may trigger chronic inflammation and rejection through Th1/Th17 activation. This review examines the natural and synthetic materials used for bone remodeling and their biological properties. It then outlines the sequence of immune events occurring from the moment a scaffold is implanted to its potential integration or failure. Finally, this study highlights the relevance of cellular models and in vitro assays for the early evaluation of immunogenicity and biocompatibility, which are essential for optimizing scaffold design and improving outcomes in maxillofacial bone regeneration. Full article

Dentin-derived biomaterials are hierarchical collagen–mineral composites increasingly used as bio-based scaffolds for bone regeneration. However, the effect of prolonged storage of extracted teeth on their physicochemical integrity remains unclear. This study evaluated the stability of dentin-derived biomaterials following long-term refrigerated storage (up to six years) using Raman spectroscopy. Extracted human teeth were processed using three preparation systems (BonMaker, Tooth Transformer, and Smart Dentin Grinder), and Raman-derived indices describing mineral and collagen structure were compared with freshly extracted controls. No time-dependent changes were observed in mineral crystallinity, carbonate substitution, or collagen-related parameters, indicating preservation of the collagen–mineral interface during storage. In contrast, the observed differences were primarily associated with processing pathways. Tooth Transformer and Smart Dentin Grinder exhibited Raman profiles closely resembling native dentin, whereas BonMaker showed reduced mineral content and altered mineral–matrix balance consistent with its demineralization protocol. These findings demonstrate that dentin behaves as a structurally stable hierarchical composite, reflecting intrinsic structural organization that limits physicochemical degradation over time. Long-term storage does not compromise dentin integrity, supporting its use as a reliable source of biomaterial for regenerative applications and future tooth banking strategies. Full article

Sports injuries, especially musculoskeletal and neurological types from strenuous exercise, are a global public health challenge. Characterized by a high incidence and slow recovery, these injuries differ from typical trauma, often resulting in severe mechanical transmission loss and an imbalanced immune microenvironment. Consequently, standard interventions struggle to achieve true tissue regeneration. Gelatin, a collagen-derived biomaterial, offers RGD-mediated cell adhesion, MMP-responsive degradation, and high modifiability. These qualities make it an excellent foundation for biomimetic repair scaffolds. This paper reviews the design principles and recent advances in gelatin-based multifunctional hydrogels in sports medicine. First, we analyse their structure and engineering advantages. Next, we summarise strategies and mechanisms for modules like conductivity, antibacterial activity, self-healing, stimulus responsiveness, and tissue adhesion. The review links these modules to types of injuries: bone or cartilage, tendon or ligament, skeletal muscle, spinal cord, and peripheral nerve. It clarifies their clinical and translational value in remodelling immune microenvironments, regulating electrophysiology, promoting interfacial regeneration, and restoring motor function. This review provides focused insights from materials science and sports rehabilitation to advance precision treatments for sports injuries. Full article

Clear aligner therapy has become increasingly widespread in contemporary orthodontics, relying on composite resin attachments to enhance force transmission and improve the predictability of tooth movement. The physicochemical and mechanical properties of these biomaterials play a crucial role in attachment durability, dimensional stability, and esthetic performance during treatment. This systematic review aimed to evaluate how different composite resin types influence the mechanical, optical, and functional performances of orthodontic attachments used in clear aligner therapy. A systematic literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane databases for studies published between 2015 and 2025, following PRISMA guidelines. In vitro studies and clinical trials evaluating composite resins used for attachment fabrication were included. Fifteen studies met the eligibility criteria, including eleven laboratory investigations and four clinical studies. The evaluated outcomes comprised shear bond strength, wear resistance, surface roughness, microhardness, color stability, and accuracy of attachment reproduction. Overall, all evaluated composite resins demonstrated shear bond strength values within clinically acceptable ranges. However, significant differences were observed in the material performances depending on the resin composition and viscosity. Nanohybrid and high-viscosity composite resins were generally associated with improved mechanical resistance, reduced wear, and greater dimensional stability, although SBS outcomes should be interpreted in light of the bonding protocols used. In contrast, flowable composite resins showed improved handling and adaptation to attachment molds but presented higher susceptibility to surface degradation and discoloration. The findings suggest that the composition and properties of composite resins significantly influence the mechanical and optical behavior of orthodontic attachments. Optimizing material selection according to biomechanical demands and esthetic requirements may improve attachment longevity and treatment predictability in clear aligner therapy. Clinicians should prioritize nanohybrid or high-viscosity composite resins for high-load attachments and use flowable composite resins materials when adaptation and esthetics are critical. Full article

Metallic biomaterials are frequently exposed to chemically aggressive environments that may compromise surface integrity and corrosion resistance. Acidic media containing organic acids represent a relevant challenge for metallic systems, as they can destabilize passive oxide layers and promote surface degradation processes. The present in vitro study investigated acid-induced surface alterations in four commercially relevant orthodontic alloys—nickel–titanium (NiTi), copper–nickel–titanium (CuNiTi), titanium–molybdenum alloy (TMA), and stainless steel—as representative metallic biomaterials. Specimens were exposed to two commercially available acidic beverages with distinct pH conditions, followed by analysis of surface morphology, roughness, and elemental composition using atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The results demonstrated pronounced alloy-dependent differences in degradation behavior. Stainless steel and TMAs exhibited significant increases in surface roughness and morphological alterations, whereas NiTi-based alloys showed comparatively stable surface characteristics. Elemental analysis revealed material-specific compositional variations, suggesting selective surface modification processes under acidic exposure. These differences can be attributed to variations in alloy composition, microstructure, and the stability of passive oxide layers, which collectively govern corrosion resistance in metallic systems. The findings provide insight into acid-induced degradation mechanisms in metallic biomaterials and highlight the importance of material-dependent corrosion behavior under chemically aggressive conditions. These observations may have implications for surface-mediated biological responses and long-term functional performance of metallic biomaterials. Full article

Direct cellular reprogramming, the conversion of one somatic cell type into another, represents a remarkable advancement in regenerative medicine. Its potential to transform fibrotic tissue into functional parenchyma underscores its therapeutic promise. However, several critical challenges remain unresolved, including limited reprogramming efficiency, the long-term functional stability of converted cells, their integration within pre-existing cellular circuits, and safety concerns related to transgene integration and immunological responses to reprogramming-based viral vectors. Approaches based on the exogenous administration of recombinant proteins and miRNAs have also emerged, though these rely on factors that are naturally prone to exhaustion and degradation, potentially restricting their efficacy. This review is divided into three main sections. The first part addresses direct cellular reprogramming in the context of other cell-based applications, outlining its main applications and current biological limitations. The second part examines how different biomaterials, ranging from hydrogel scaffolds to nanoparticles, can modulate direct cellular reprogramming by providing mechanical and topographical cues and by enabling tighter control over the concentration and spatiotemporal dynamics of reprogramming factors and viral vectors. The third part discusses key findings in biomaterial-assisted reprogramming strategies, highlighting emerging opportunities for clinically translatable approaches. The convergence of regenerative biology and biomaterials science may ultimately generate advanced gel-based and hybrid cellular reprogramming platforms for in vitro testing and, in situ applications, for promoting cell fate stabilization and facilitating the regeneration of damaged tissues and organs. Full article

Since current therapies cannot regenerate lost myocardium or reverse adverse ventricular remodeling—major contributors to worldwide cardiovascular mortality—advanced biomaterials, particularly hydrogels, have emerged as promising therapeutic platforms. Among these, bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) has gained increasing attention due to its hydrated nanofibrillar architecture, high crystallinity, robust mechanical performance, and excellent water-retention capacity, features that closely resemble key aspects of the native extracellular matrix. These properties provide a favorable microenvironment for cell adhesion, survival, and tissue organization in cardiovascular applications. Preclinical evidence suggests that BNC-based cardiac constructs, including acellular patches and cell-laden systems, may reduce post-infarction ventricular dilation, promote angiogenesis, and improve cellular engraftment. In vascular tissue engineering, BNC has also been explored in small-diameter grafts, anisotropic hydrogel systems, and shape-memory conduits with encouraging hemocompatibility and functional durability. Functional modifications—including gelatin incorporation, oxidative surface treatments, peptide grafting, conductive polymers, and structural alignment strategies—further expand the biological and mechanical versatility of BNC-based systems. In addition, BNC-containing bioinks have demonstrated promising rheological behavior, printability, and cell compatibility for 3D bioprinting applications. Despite these advances, important challenges remain, including optimization of material functionalization, host integration, degradation control, vascularization, scalable manufacturing, and regulatory translation toward clinical application. Full article