Search Results (4,772)

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is widely used to enhance aerobic performance in combat sports, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying training adaptation remain unclear. This study investigated whether changes in circulating myokine–adipokine profiles are associated with aerobic performance adaptation following sport-specific HIIT in trained combat athletes. Forty elite male kickboxers were randomly assigned to a HIIT group (n = 20) or a control group (n = 20). The HIIT group performed an eight-week sport-specific HIIT program in addition to regular training, whereas the control group maintained their usual training routines. Aerobic capacity was assessed using maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max). Fasting blood samples were collected before and after the intervention to determine circulating apelin, irisin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), myostatin, fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), and adiponectin concentrations. VO₂max increased significantly in the HIIT group compared with the control group (+2.10 ± 1.10 vs. +0.35 ± 0.80 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, p = 0.001). In addition, apelin, irisin, BDNF, FGF21, and adiponectin increased, whereas myostatin decreased following the intervention. Changes in myostatin were negatively correlated with improvements in VO₂max (r = −0.55, p = 0.007), suggesting that reductions in myostatin may serve as a molecular indicator of aerobic adaptation in combat athletes. Full article

This study investigated the effects of mental fatigue induced by social media (SM) use and the Stroop task on decision-making, visual search strategies, and reaction time in elite collegiate handball players (n = 16). Using a randomized, counterbalanced cross-over design, both interventions successfully induced subjective mental fatigue, as confirmed by visual analog scale (VAS) ratings. Decision-making accuracy and reaction time improved following the Stroop task, likely due to compensatory mechanisms described in the regulatory-control model. In the SM condition, no significant impairments were observed in decision-making performance; however, visual reaction time was specifically delayed, while auditory reaction time remained unaffected, suggesting modality-specific effects of SM-induced fatigue. Visual search behaviors remained largely stable, with only marginal alterations observed in non-task-relevant areas following the Stroop task. These findings highlight the cognitive resilience and adaptive control mechanisms of elite athletes in maintaining and, in some cases, enhancing performance under mental fatigue. Future studies should integrate neurophysiological indices and manipulate motivational factors to further clarify these mechanisms across diverse athletic populations. Full article

Background: Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms are common in endurance and ultra-endurance sports and may impair performance or lead to race withdrawal. While nutritional strategies are frequently emphasized, the respective roles of baseline digestive susceptibility and cumulative exercise exposure remain insufficiently characterized. Methods: Two complementary cross-sectional questionnaire-based studies were conducted in endurance athletes. Study 1 included 230 ultra-trail runners and examined determinants of systematic GI symptoms during competition using a composite digestive vulnerability (DV) score reflecting susceptibility indicators. Study 2 included 497 endurance and ultra-endurance athletes from multiple disciplines and investigated multivariable correlates of GI symptoms and GI-related race withdrawal, integrating training-related GI symptoms (proxy of digestive vulnerability), habitual competition duration (≥6 h), sport category and specific digestive symptoms. Logistic regression models were adjusted for age and sex. Results: In Study 1, the DV score was independently associated with systematic GI symptoms during competition (adjusted OR per point = 1.93, 95% CI 1.33–2.80). In Study 2, athletes reporting GI symptoms during training had markedly higher odds of experiencing GI symptoms during competition (adjusted OR = 3.96, 95% CI 2.67–5.87). Habitual exposure to events lasting ≥6 h was independently associated with increased odds of GI-related race withdrawal (adjusted OR = 2.25, 95% CI 1.35–3.78). GI symptoms during competition represented the strongest proximal correlate of withdrawal (adjusted OR = 7.04, 95% CI 4.00–12.30), indicating a sequential relationship between baseline digestive vulnerability, symptom expression during competition and race termination. After adjustment for digestive vulnerability and exercise exposure, no individual nutritional category remained independently associated with GI outcomes. Conclusions: Gastrointestinal symptoms and race withdrawal in endurance athletes were more consistently associated with digestive vulnerability expressed during training and cumulative exercise exposure than with isolated nutritional items. These findings support a vulnerability–exposure framework in which individual digestive susceptibility interacts with prolonged physiological stress during endurance exercise. Identifying athletes with elevated digestive vulnerability during training may represent a practical strategy to improve individualized nutritional preparation and reduce GI-related race interruption. Full article

Ginger supplementation is proposed as a natural ergogenic aid due to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, but its effects on endurance performance remain unclear. Methods: In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial, 30 trained cyclists (27 male, 3 females, aged 36 ± 11 yr) completed three visits: a baseline 75 km time trial, a post-supplementation time trial, and a second post-supplementation trial under the alternate condition. Participants consumed either ginger or placebo for four weeks. Statistics: Performance outcomes (i.e., 75 km time, VO₂, power output, heart rate, and RPE) were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA, with repeated-measures ANCOVA to assess dietary and age influences (p < 0.05). Results: Energy and carbohydrate intake were consistent across trials and unrelated to performance. Protein intake per kg body mass predicted performance time in the placebo trial and average VO₂ in the ginger trial; other macronutrients were not associated with outcomes. No significant differences were observed between ginger and placebo conditions for time to completion, VO₂, power output, heart rate, or perceived muscle soreness. Conclusions: Four weeks of ginger supplementation does not improve prolonged cycling performance, recovery, or muscle soreness in trained cyclists when dietary intake is controlled. Future research should explore cellular mechanisms to determine whether ginger supplementation could influence performance or recovery in endurance athletes. Full article

Background: Tendons adapt to mechanical loading by increasing cross-sectional area (CSA), stiffness, and matrix organization, with structural remodeling critical for both rehabilitation and performance. Collagen supplementation has been proposed to enhance this process by supplying key amino acids for collagen synthesis; however, inconsistent results across trials have limited its clinical and athletic application. Methods: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials evaluating collagen supplementation in humans was conducted. PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, and Web of Science were searched from database inception through May 2025. Risk of bias was assessed using the PEDro scale (≥6/10 classified as good-to-excellent quality). Due to substantial heterogeneity in supplementation protocols, training modalities, and outcome measures, results were synthesized narratively without meta-analysis. Data extraction included collagen type, dose, training modality, intervention duration, and outcome measures. Results: Of 887 unique citations, eight RCTs (n = 257; ages 18–52; 246 M:11 F) met the inclusion criteria. All studies incorporated resistance or plyometric training (3–15 weeks). Three of four studies reported significantly greater increases in tendon CSA in collagen groups versus placebo. Four studies investigated tendon stiffness and Young’s modulus; the two using higher doses (15–30 g/day) demonstrated significant between-group improvements favoring collagen, while lower-dose studies (~5 g) showed only within-group effects. Muscle strength improved with training in all trials, but no additive effects of collagen were observed. One study reported improvements in eccentric rate of force development and deceleration impulse with collagen, though gross explosive metrics (e.g., jump height) were unaffected. Conclusions: Collagen supplementation (15–30 g) with vitamin C (≥50 mg) may enhance tendon remodeling when combined with high-intensity resistance training (≥70% 1 RM). The current literature suggests strong evidence (GRADE A) for increases in tendon CSA and stiffness, strong evidence (GRADE A) against an effect on muscle strength, and conflicting evidence (GRADE C) for muscle cross-sectional area and physical performance. Limitations include small sample sizes, heterogeneous protocols, and short intervention durations. Full article

Background and Objectives: The hypertrophic adaptation of the diaphragm to inspiratory muscle training (IMT) remains insufficiently characterized, particularly in healthy and athletic populations. To address this gap, we conducted a meta-analysis and meta-regression to evaluate the effects of IMT on diaphragm thickness and identify potential moderating factors. Materials and Methods: A systematic search was conducted across PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and SPORTDiscus as well as Google Scholar (gray literature) through November 2025. Eight studies involving 203 healthy participants met the inclusion criteria. A random-effects model was used to calculate pooled effect sizes and meta-regression estimates. Results: IMT produced a statistically significant moderate increase in diaphragm muscle thickness, with a standardized mean difference (SMD) of Hedges’ g = 0.52 (95% CI: 0.19 to 0.85; p < 0.05). Subgroup analyses indicated that IMT with 50% maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) produces a statistically significant effect (p = 0.0069), whereas fitness status and age did not significantly influence outcomes (p = 0.589 and p = 0.126, respectively). Meta-regression analyses revealed that only baseline MIP value (β = 0.030; 95% CI: 0.009 to 0.050; p = 0.004) was associated with diaphragm hypertrophy. Conclusions: IMT with 50% of MIP elicits meaningful diaphragmatic hypertrophy in healthy individuals. This response appears independent of fitness status or age, but is significantly influenced by baseline inspiratory muscle strength (MIP). These findings support the utility of IMT in enhancing respiratory muscle morphology in health and performance contexts. Full article

(1) Achilles tendon rupture is one of the most severe lower-limb injuries, frequently occurring during movements involving maximal dorsiflexion with the knee at near-full extension. Preventive strategies are crucial, particularly for athletes engaged in high-risk sports such as basketball. (2) In this work, we examined the effect of a novel Achilles brace on Achilles tendon loading during concentric and eccentric mechanisms associated with tendon rupture. (3) Twenty-eight young basketball players performed tests under two conditions: with the adaptive brace and without it (control). Participants were divided into two groups (n = 14 in both). The first group assessed concentric Achilles loading by performing three plantar-flexor strength tests in three different joint configurations: maximal dorsiflexion with the knee flexed (FKF); injury mechanism position—full plantar flexion with the knee extended (FKE); and neutral ankle position with the knee extended (NKE). The number of maximal heel-raise repetitions performed before onset of fatigue was recorded. The second group assessed eccentric tendon loading by performing single-leg forced maximal-velocity dorsiflexion with the knee extended. In all tests, the time between maximal plantar flexion and maximal dorsiflexion, as well as the ankle range of motion, was analyzed using 2D video. Paired t-tests were used to compare braced and control conditions. In all tests, the ankle range of motion (ROM) did not differ significantly between brace and control conditions. Wearing the brace significantly improved plantar-flexor muscle strength only in the FKE test (31 ± 1.3 repetitions with brace vs. 21 ± 1.3 in control, p < 0.05). No significant differences were found for the FKF (27 ± 1.3 vs. 25 ± 1.3) or NKE (25 ± 1.3 vs. 24 ± 1.3) positions. During drop eccentric loading, wearing the brace resulted in a significantly slower transition time from plantar flexion to dorsiflexion (460 ± 60 ms with brace vs. 320 ± 30 ms in control, p < 0.001). (4) In brief, the novel Achilles brace was found to significantly reduces Achilles tendon load during both concentric and eccentric activities, but only in high-risk joint positions. These findings suggest that the brace provides mechanical protection, and may reduce the risk of Achilles tendon rupture, in athletes exposed to high tendon stress. Full article

The increasing popularity of carnivore and animal-based diets among athletes has generated substantial interest, despite limited direct scientific evidence supporting their efficacy and safety in sport-specific contexts. This narrative review critically evaluates the current evidence and examines the physiological, performance, and health-related implications of these dietary models in athletic populations. These dietary models, characterized by the partial or complete exclusion of plant-derived foods, are often promoted on the basis of mechanistic arguments, anecdotal reports, and extrapolations from research on ketogenic and very low-carbohydrate diets. However, their physiological relevance, long-term health implications, and compatibility with the demands of athletic training remain poorly defined. This narrative review provides a critical perspective on the current evidence related to carnivore and animal-based diets in sport, integrating findings from studies on low-carbohydrate, ketogenic, high-protein, and elimination-based dietary patterns. The analysis focuses on metabolic adaptations, body composition, exercise performance, gastrointestinal function, micronutrient adequacy, hormonal responses, and potential long-term health risks. Particular attention is given to the distinction between metabolic adaptations and functional performance outcomes, as well as to the high interindividual variability in dietary responses. The available evidence suggests that while carbohydrate restriction may induce specific metabolic adaptations, such as increased fat oxidation, these changes do not consistently translate into improved performance, particularly in high-intensity or high-volume training contexts. Moreover, the highly restrictive nature of carnivore and animal-based diets raises concerns about micronutrient deficiencies, alterations in the gut microbiota, changes in the lipid profile, and potential effects on eating behaviours, particularly in competitive athletic populations. Given the absence of well-controlled, long-term intervention studies in athletes, carnivore and animal-based diets cannot currently be recommended as safe or optimal nutritional strategies for sports performance. Rather than representing viable alternatives to established sports nutrition guidelines, these dietary models may be better understood as experimental or short-term tools within highly controlled research or diagnostic frameworks. Future research should prioritize rigorous, sport-specific study designs, long-term safety outcomes, and personalized approaches that account for individual metabolic and physiological variability. Full article

Physical exercise represents a physiological stressor capable of activating the acute-phase response (APR) in horses. However, the relative contribution of exercise intensity versus duration to acute-phase protein (APP) dynamics remains incompletely defined. This study compared the effects of short, high-intensity gallop exercise (2400 m flat race; n = 12) and prolonged, low-intensity endurance exercise (40 km; n = 13) on serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (Hp), and ceruloplasmin (Cp) in Thoroughbred racehorses. Blood samples were collected before exercise and at defined post-exercise time points. Between-group comparisons were performed at shared time points (72 h and 96 h post-exercise) using mixed-effects modeling and effect size analysis. The significant Group × Time interaction for SAA indicates that exercise duration plays a key role in determining the magnitude and persistence of the late-phase systemic inflammatory response. Serum amyloid A emerged as the most sensitive biomarker of cumulative physiological stress following prolonged exercise. These findings support the use of SAA monitoring during recovery to assist training management in equine athletes. Because early post-exercise sampling was not performed in the gallop group, conclusions primarily reflect differences in late-phase (72–96 h) APP kinetics. Full article

Background and Objectives: Judo is an Olympic contact sport with a high risk of injury owing to its physical, technical, and competitive demands. The role of psychological factors in recovery and Return to Sport (RTS), such as kinesiophobia and self-perception, is key in the injury process. These factors influence both the success and timing of return and are affected by variables such as locus of control, previous experience, and contextual factors. This study sought to analyse the relationship between sociodemographic, clinical, sports, and psychological variables with kinesiophobia and self-perception of RTS to identify psychological profiles. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted at the Centro de Alto Rendimiento de Judo (CEAR) in Valencia, Spain; involving 51 high-performance judokas (mean age 23.0 ± 3.8 years) competing at national or international level who were injured, out of competition or in the process of returning to training or competition. Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Psychological variables were assessed using the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK-11) and the Psychological Readiness of Injured Athlete to Return to Sport (PRIA-RS) questionnaire. Results: No significant associations were found between sociodemographic, clinical–sports, and psychological variables (p > 0.05). The mean TSK-11 and PRIA-RS scores were 25.02 ± 5.79 and 36.49 ± 5.29, respectively. Cluster analysis identified three differentiated psychological profiles: one with high kinesiophobia, longer injury and time away from competition, and lower self-perceived readiness to RTS (n = 16); a second with lower fear, the lowest readiness, younger age, and shorter recovery time (n = 17); and a third with the lowest kinesiophobia, highest readiness, older age, and intermediate injury-related time (n = 18). Conclusions: Three psychological profiles were identified: young judokas with low self-perceived readiness to Return to Sport (RTS) and low kinesiophobia; older judokas with high readiness and minimal kinesiophobia; and a more vulnerable group with longer recovery times, high kinesiophobia, and low self-perceived readiness to RTS. Further studies with additional specific variables and biopsychosocial approaches are needed. Full article

Research using latent profile analysis (LPA) has yielded inconsistent results regarding the number of personality profiles among athletes, the specific configuration of the Big Five traits, and their interpretation. This study seeks to explore personality types by excluding additional variables from the LPA model, aiming to assess how well personality profiles are universal (independent of gender and cultural context) and can predict academic achievement in student athletes. A cross-sectional study was conducted using a paper-and-pencil questionnaire among 424 student athletes from two universities in Poland and Ukraine. The average age of participants was 20 years old (M = 20.01; SD = 2.48), 62% were male, 53% lived in Poland, and 58% studied Sports Sciences vs. 42% Physical Education. The Mini-International Personality Item Pool (Mini-IPIP) was used to assess the Big Five personality traits, and grade point average (GPA) was used to measure students’ academic achievements in the last semester. The LPA identified four personality profiles: (1) Restrained Neurotic (Profile 1, 32%), Open Extravert (Profile 2, 42%), Competitive Neurotic (Profile 3, 17%), and Cooperative Perfectionist (Profile 4, 8%). Profiles 1, 3, and 4 showed similarly low levels of emotional stability, extraversion, and intellect but differed significantly in agreeableness and conscientiousness. Gender and country differences across athletes representing specific profiles were also noted. Profile 2 showed the strongest link with academic achievement. Hierarchical multiple linear regression showed that LPA profiles explained only 2% of GPA variance, compared to Big Five personality traits (9%) and demographic variables, such as sex, country, and study major (8%), which were also included in the following steps in the regression model, explaining only 9% and 8%, respectively. Most student athletes (52%) with personality profiles 1 (Restrained Neurotic), 3 (Competitive Neurotic), and 4 (Cooperative Perfectionist) may require psychological training to better cope with negative emotions and stress arising in competitive and academic settings. Profile 2 (Open Extravert) seems to be the most adaptive and potentially successful personality type. Personality types are, at least to some extent, related to gender and country of residence. More cross-cultural research is required to further verify the types of athletic personalities. Full article

Background/Objectives: The recent discovery of the importance of gut microbiota has enhanced our understanding of several issues related to energy metabolism, immune systems, and post-exercise recovery, which could have an impact on sports performance. Probiotics are used as sports supplements and have recently been proposed to be effective in reducing the incidence of gastrointestinal and respiratory infections during training and competition. This scoping review aimed to evaluate the gut microbiota composition of competitive cyclists and investigate the effect of probiotic administration in this sports population. Methods: A literature review was conducted using the following databases: PubMed/Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus, and all studies until 1 November 2025 were considered. After dual-reviewer screening, data were charted to identify the composition of gut microbiota and the effects of probiotics on these types of athletes. Results: After all the study identification phases, eleven studies were selected. Seven studies evaluated the composition of the gut microbiota, while four randomized controlled trials evaluated probiotic intake. The results indicate an abundance of Prevotella distinct for this type of athlete, which could facilitate the metabolism of glucose and short-chain fatty acids. Among the four main areas of improvement identified in relation to probiotics, a 16-week multi-strain supplementation protocol showed improved aerobic performance and exertion rate in amateur cyclists. Conclusions: Despite the limited number of studies, certain microbiota traits could be identified in competitive cyclists, which may correspond to their high metabolic rate. Although further strain standardized studies are needed on professional cyclists, the data could indicate that certain probiotic supplementation may be an effective addition for competitive cyclists. Full article

Capturing kinematic data in outdoor sports is challenging, as motions span large capture volumes and occur under difficult environmental conditions. Video-based approaches, particularly with pan–tilt–zoom cameras, offer a practical solution, but the extensive manual post-processing required limits their use to short sequences and few athletes. This study presents a motion capture pipeline that automates the detection of both reference points and sport-specific keypoints to overcome this limitation. The field test employed eight cameras covering a $250\times 80\times 30 \mathrm{m}$ capture volume with nearly 300 reference points. Ten state-certified ski instructors performed eight standardized maneuvers. Reference points were localized through a hybrid approach combining YOLO object detection and ArUco marker identification. AlphaPose was fine-tuned on a new manually annotated dataset to detect skier-specific keypoints (e.g., skis, poles) alongside anatomical landmarks. Continuous frame-wise calibration and 3D reconstruction were performed using Direct Linear Transformation. Evaluation compared automated detections with manual annotations. Automated reference point detection achieved a mean localization error of $4.1$ pixels ($0.1\%$ of 4K width) and reduced 3D segment-length variation by $23\%$. The skier-specific keypoint model reached $98\%$ PCK, mAP of $0.97$, and an MPJPE of $10.3$ pixels while lowering 3D segment-length variation by $0.5 \mathrm{cm}$ compared to manual digitization and $0.6 \mathrm{cm}$ relative to a pretrained model. Replacing manual digitization with automated detection improves accuracy and facilitates kinematic data collection in large outdoor fields with many athletes and trials. The approach also enables the creation of sport-specific datasets valuable for biomechanical research and training next-generation 3D pose estimation models. Full article

Esports are a rapidly expanding form of competitive activity that demand high levels of cognitive alertness, motor precision, stress management, and resilience to mental and physical fatigue. At the same time, the sedentary lifestyle, extended screen exposure, and psychological pressures associated with competitive gaming raise concerns for both performance and long-term health. Growing evidence highlights the importance of nutrition and lifestyle behaviors in supporting cognitive performance and overall competitive demands. While balanced dietary patterns and adequate hydration are essential, dietary supplements may provide additional benefits when used appropriately and under professional guidance. However, the current research is limited by a predominance of cross-sectional and self-reported studies, short-term or acute interventions, small sample sizes, and insufficient emphasis on esports-specific and personalized strategies. This review examines existing evidence on individualized nutrition, supplementation, and lifestyle strategies in esports, identifies key methodological limitations, and outlines future directions to inform evidence-based practice for athletes, practitioners, and organizations seeking to optimize cognitive performance, well-being, and long-term sustainability in this emerging field. Full article