Search Results (65)

Given the increasing challenges posed by frequent extreme climatic events, understanding the climate–human connection between the climate system and the transitions of ancient civilizations is crucial for addressing future climatic challenges, especially when examining the relationship between the abrupt events of the Holocene and the Neolithic culture development. Compared with the globally recognized “4.2 ka collapse” of ancient cultures, the initial start time and the cultural significance of the 5.5 ka climatic fluctuation are more complex and ambiguous. The Hongshan culture (6.5–5.0 ka) is characterized by a complicated society evident in its grand public architecture and elaborate high-status tombs. However, the driving mechanisms behind cultural changes remain complex and subject to ongoing debate. This paper delves into the role of climatic change in Hongshan cultural shifts, presenting an integrated dataset that combines climatic proxy records with archaeological data from the Hongshan culture period. Based on synthesized aeolian, fluvial-lacustrine, loess, and stalagmite deposits, the study indicates a relatively cold and dry climatic fluctuation occurred during ~6.0–5.5 ka, which is widespread in the Horqin dune field and adjacent areas. Combining spatial analysis with ArcGis 10.8 on archaeological sites, we propose that the climatic fluctuation between ~6.0–5.5 ka likely triggered the migration of the Hongshan settlements and adjustment of survival strategies. Full article

The objective of this research is to conduct a spatial analysis of the functional Andean worldview of the Ankasmarka Archaeological Site, located in Calca, Peru. The preservation of cultural heritage in Latin America faces significant challenges that threaten the integrity of key sites such as Ankasmarka. Despite its historical relevance, this site lacks available open access information and data, collected in accessible reports, which hinders the attraction of attention and funding necessary for its conservation. Furthermore, urbanization and uncontrolled tourism negatively impact both cultural traditions and the connection of local communities with their past. The methodology employed is based on a systematic review of primary information, supplemented by excavation reports and official sources. Specialized software such as AutoCAD Architecture and Revit were used to carry out the topographic and architectural survey of the site, enabling the precise and rigorous interpretation of the data. This article focuses on the spatial and functional description of the site, with the aim of paving the way for future research in specific areas such as formal and structural analysis, as well as social and political dynamics. The results reveal a complex organizational structure at Ankasmarka, with enclosures designated for various functions, particularly storage and agricultural activities. The site is divided into three sectors: Sector A, which includes housing, storage areas, and tombs; and Sector B and C, with the highest concentration of housing and agricultural zones with storage areas, respectively. The findings underscore the interrelationship between agriculture, funerary practices, and architecture, highlighting the importance of Ankasmarka in the lives of its ancient inhabitants and the need for continued future research. Full article

In zooarchaeological research, animal bone fractures can result from various processes including slaughtering, dismemberment, marrow/grease extraction, craft processing, carnivore gnawing/trampling, sediment compression, bioturbation, and recovery bias. These fractures are further influenced by bone freshness/dryness and environmental temperature. The animal bones analysed in this study, excavated from Han dynasty tombs in the Xinxiang Plain New District, China, represent ritual offerings. These specimens exhibit distinct truncation features—chop surfaces, rough planes, and fracture traces—created by ancient iron tools for culinary purposes such as stewing preparation or consumption facilitation. These characteristics differ significantly, from the V-shaped butchery marks produced by stone/bronze tools and fracture patterns from marrow/grease extraction to post-depositional breakage formed during burial processes. In this study, steel tools were employed in the rocking slicing and rolling slicing of animal bones, complemented by techniques such as breaking to sever bone shafts. Subsequently, the marks on the cross-sections were observed using a stereomicroscope, and the results were compared and analysed with the materials from Han dynasty tombs unearthed at Xinxiang city, Henan Province. From the comparison between experimental observation results and archaeological materials, it is evident that the fine processing of meat-bearing bone materials mainly involved the use of rocking and rolling slicing methods. The cross-sections of the slices revealed shearing surfaces, rough patches, bone splinters, and sliced ends. The shearing surfaces in particular exhibited numerous visible trace characteristics, with the types and quantities of these traces varying with different cutting tools. This study holds significant reference value for exploring cutting tools and techniques in antiquity. Full article

This study presents the first scientific characterization of the white preparatory layer and polychrome pigments on painted wooden figurines excavated from the Mawangdui Tomb No. 1, dating to the Han dynasty. A combination of analytical techniques, including XRF mapping, SEM, ATR-FTIR, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy, was used to investigate the composition, structure, and potential additives in the white layer. The results reveal that the preparatory layer is primarily composed of gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) and calcite (CaCO₃), with minor phases such as anhydrite and larnite. SEM observations show a porous microstructure of needle-like crystals, while spectroscopic data suggest possible traces of organic binders. The preparatory layer was likely applied to smooth surface irregularities and support polychrome decoration, such as cinnabar and carbon-based pigments, and may have also functioned as a putty in localized areas. This represents the first confirmed use of gypsum-based plaster in ancient Chinese woodcarving, showing unexpected parallels with surface preparation techniques used in New Kingdom Egypt. However, the presence of organic additives and the internal structure of the figurines remain unresolved due to equipment limitations. These findings provide new insights into ancient material practices and highlight the importance of environmental control and material-specific conservation strategies for fragile gypsum-based heritage objects. Full article

Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer architecture, built by King Sūryavarman II during the 12th century A.D. Jane Przyluski hypothesized that Angkor Wat was the tomb of King Sūryavarman II. On the other hand, George Cœdès thought that Angkor Wat complex was habitation in the form of a celestial palace. According to Henri Parmentier, though the buildings and constructions in Angkor Wat temple complex are majestic, they are geometrically out of place. The temple complex is non-symmetrical, as the complex’s center is left-aligned. The above controversial opinions inspire a deep examination of the geometric system of the architectural and structural design of Angkor Wat. This research investigates the architectural planning and frame structures of Angkor Wat stone temple complex using a Hindu grid system. The study was based on field survey data of the temple complex and Hindu ancient texts, specifically the Vāstu Śāstra. PhotoModeler Pro5 and Polycam for iOS-4.0.5 were utilized to render three-dimensional (3D) images of the entire temple complex. The analysis finds the geometric code (suitable module) used in the planning of 2.75 m × 2.75 m in the metric system (1 Phyeam 1 Hat 1 Thnob in) the local Cambodian measuring system). The geometric code (2.75 m × 2.75 m) highlights the design diagram and construction of the temple complex. The research also unveiled the use of a center-shifting technique where the vertical axis running through the center is deliberately left-aligned, to avoid numerical fractions occurring in the grid modules. The technique gives rise to the asymmetry of the temple complex. The findings led to understanding the symbolic meaning of spatial organization of the layout and plan of Angkor Wat design, which was meant to be a suitable residence for the god on earth, the king, and his citizens. Moreover, it also means the final abode of King Sūryavarman II after his death, represented by the image of Lord Viṣṇu. Full article

Microbes colonizing cultural artifacts are a ubiquitous phenomenon which may occur during burial, post-excavation, and storage periods, thereby seriously affecting sustainable heritage conservation. In this study, high-throughput sequencing technology was applied to analyze the microbial community structure in ancient mural paintings and the surrounding air, as well as to identify the most characteristic taxa causing black spot contamination. The results showed that members of the genera Gliomastix and Ochroconis were highly abundant in black-spots-contaminated areas and rarely detected in the air and uncontaminated mural paintings. Air samples of the two tombs showed no significant difference in Chao1 and Shannon indices, whereas statistically significant differences were observed compared to those samples collected from black spots. The taxonomic diversity of the microbial community in the soil-covered mural paintings and air exhibited similar structures at the genus level. Moreover, when compared to other areas of the two tombs, the samples from black spots differed not only in microbial community composition but also in microbial assembly processes and the co-occurrence patterns, such as much less network complexity in the black spots area. Functional predictions uncover the presence of microbial functional profiles involved in nitrogen cycling, organic matter degradation, and animal and human pathogens, representing a potential threat to cultural relics and public health. These results advance our understanding of the impacts of archeological excavations on the microbial community variation in tomb mural paintings. Full article

With the rapid advancement of urbanisation and transit networks, exploring the spatial relationship between metro systems and cultural heritage is crucial for both heritage preservation and sustainable urban development. This study uses the nearest neighbour index, kernel density analysis, and spatial value evaluation to examine the distribution patterns of cultural heritage in Beijing and its spatial interaction with the metro network. The results show that different types of cultural heritage have distinct distribution characteristics: stone inscriptions are widely dispersed due to their need for preservation in natural settings; traditional villages and ancient tombs are shaped by historical and geographical factors; and industrial heritage is concentrated in areas of historical industrial activity, reflecting strong functional zoning traits. The metro network enhances the accessibility of cultural heritage, especially national- and provincial-level sites, which are predominantly clustered near metro stations. However, geographically isolated world heritage sites, such as the Great Wall and the Ming Tombs, remain less connected to the metro network, helping preserve their authenticity and avoid overdevelopment. Furthermore, thematic designs and cultural displays within Beijing’s metro stations successfully bridge the gap between history and modernity, positioning metro stations as key platforms for cultural dissemination. Nevertheless, metro construction presents challenges to heritage conservation, including potential impacts on site stability due to tunnelling and conflicts between modern station design and the aesthetic integrity of historic districts. These findings offer practical insights for cultural heritage preservation and transit planning in Beijing and serve as a reference for the sustainable development of other historic cities worldwide. Full article

Environmental elements, such as insects, plants, algae and microbes, may provide important information when reconstructing and interpreting past events. In archaeological contexts, the study of the insects associated with dead bodies can contribute to describe funerary practices. Funerary archaeoentomology is increasingly being utilized; however, there is a lack of application in ancient contexts, thousands of years old. During archaeological excavations carried out at the Filigosa archaeological site (Sardinia, Italy), a prehistoric grave cut named Domus de Janas was found. This type of grave is typical of the island and dates to the Recent Neolithic period. The sepulchral chamber containing 77 individuals (49 adults and 28 subadults) was investigated revealing the presence of some entomological fragments. The mineralized specimens found belonged to the immature stages of flies (Diptera) in the genera Calliphora and Lucilia, as well as beetles (Coleoptera) in the genus Necrobia. These species are typically associated with body decomposition. The analysis and interpretation of these findings led to the following conclusions based on archaeological hypotheses: (1) the cadavers were exposed for a period of time, allowing the arrival of the blow flies during the initial wave of colonization; (2) subsequent primary depositions occurred within the chamber, and (3) a geological change likely occurred shortly after the cessation of the tomb utilization leading to the presence of mud and water. Full article

X-ray Computed Tomography (X-CT) is now an established technique for the investigation and diagnostics of Cultural Heritage. Its advantages include non-invasiveness, non-destructiveness, and the possibility of exploring the inner parts of an object without any modification. X-CT is often employed to investigate the construction methods of complex artifacts made with different parts or materials, but it is also able to support the analysis, intervention, monitoring and enhancement processes of artworks, creating digital models that can aid in the conservation and restoration procedures. In this work, several case studies are presented in which the CT technique has been decisive in identifying the effects of time and the events that occurred during the object’s life influencing its state of conservation. These range from large objects, such as an 18th century CE writing cabinet or an ancient Egyptian wooden coffin, to very small artifacts, like Mesopotamian lapis lazuli beads or fragments of Roman colored glass. Additionally, the results obtained by µ-CT investigations on the conservation state of a bronze arrowhead uncovered from the Urama-chausuyama mounded tomb (Japan, Kofun period, end of the 3rd century CE) are presented here for the first time. Lastly, the versatility of the technique when applied with different setups is highlighted. Full article

The present article studies aspects of the artistic production at New Kingdom Saqqara, a necropolis of the ancient Egyptian royal residence city Memphis. Following a brief review of the functions of ancient Egyptian tombs, this article will first set out to scrutinize the tomb-making section of society (e.g., size, membership). Second, the corpus of tombs will be reviewed to uncover the diverse nature of the tomb owners and to investigate access to resources required for tomb making. Third, the article will proceed to place the tombs in spatial and temporal context and reflect on the artistic production in a necropolis in motion. Full article

Scholarship has described Deir el-Medina as a sophisticated community composed of highly trained and educated individuals, at least compared to most ancient Egyptian villages that were primarily focused on agrarian labor. The tombs at Deir el-Medina indicate that some community members were well-off financially and may have aspired to reach elite levels in ancient Egypt’s social hierarchy. However, this understanding of Deir el-Medina’s community lacks the nuance of the hierarchical structure that defines success and status among the workers, artists, and craftspeople living in the community. This paper will investigate how one’s status within the community might dictate the allocation of artistic roles in the execution of painted royal tomb scenes. It will explore who within the community would have the privilege of depicting the primary motifs of a tomb and who would be responsible for less noticeable areas of the tomb. Full article

Broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) is among the earliest domesticated staple crops in the world’s agricultural history and facilitated the development of several early agrarian cultures, particularly those originating in northern China. However, the propagation route of broomcorn millet in China from the Middle Ages to the present remains unclear. The aim of this study is to explore the genetic affinity between ancient and modern millet samples, trace the genetic origins and diffusion pathways of broomcorn millet, and provide insights into its domestication and spread. To achieve this, we sequence ancient DNA from broomcorn millet remains excavated from the Chashan Village cemetery (AD 691) in Gansu Province, China. Phylogenetic and population genetic analyses, integrating ancient and modern millet genomes, reveal a close genetic relationship between ancient millet and contemporary millet from Ningxia Province (445 km away from Chashan Village), suggesting a potential origin for the Chashan millet. This finding aligns with the tomb’s epitaph, which documents the reburial of the tomb’s owner, who was originally buried in Ningxia, and provides important archaeological evidence for understanding the interaction between geopolitical dynamics and the natural environment in northwest China during the late seventh century. Furthermore, outgroup-f3 and D statistics evidence suggests substantial genetic interactions between ancient millet and modern varieties from the Loess Plateau, Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, and Northeast Plain, indicating the dispersal route of broomcorn millet, along with human migration routes, from the northwest to northern China and ultimately to the northeast region, starting from the Middle Ages onward. This study enhances our understanding of millet’s genetic history, offers a novel perspective on burial archaeology, and provides valuable insights into the origins, domestication, and diffusion of broomcorn millet. Full article

This paper presents a novel concept for significantly enhancing the strength and durability of ancient closed-box tombs. These tombs hold significant philosophical values, and their architecture serves as a valuable data source, providing insights into the cultural stage of the society in which it was constructed. Throughout medieval and modern times, clay bricks remained a prevalent material for tomb construction due to their affordability and design flexibility. However, these structures currently face neglect and weakening, requiring imperative intervention of protection to prevent them from potential deterioration or extinction. The key objective of this research is to explore the potential use of graphene oxide (GO), a novel nanomaterial, as a treatment method to enhance the durability of mud brick tombs in Aswan, Egypt. Samples of mud bricks were examined and characterized using various techniques, including SEM-EDX, TEM, PLM, XRF, XRD, and mechanical properties analysis. The results indicated that GO nanomaterials significantly improve the mechanical properties of mud brick tombs, allowing them to resist more compressive loading and ultimately resulting in more durable and long-lasting structures. By using these innovative materials, effective restoration and preservation of these ancient structures for future generations could be viable. This research has the potential to revolutionize the preservation of closed-box tombs, ensuring these historical landmarks stand longer the test of time. Full article

The present research analyses the role of the Egyptian artist within the context of New Kingdom art, paying attention to the appearance of new details in Theban tomb chapels that reflect the originality of their creators. On the one hand, the visibility of the case studies investigated is explored, looking for a possible explanation as to their function within the tomb scenes (such as ‘visual hooks’) and offering a brief experimental approach. Tomb owners benefitted from the expertise and originality of the artists who helped to reaffirm their status and perpetuate their funerary cults. On the other hand, iconography can include examples of the innate creativity of artists, including ancient Egyptian ones. The presence of such innovative details reflects the undeniable creativity of artists, who sought stimulating scenes which were sometimes emulated by contemporaries and later workmates. Significantly, some of these innovative details reveal unusual poses and daily-life character, probably related to the individuality of the artists and their innovative spirit. In other words, the creative impulse is what leads artists to innovate. In this sense, creativity must be understood as the dynamic of the visual arts that determines constant evolution of styles. Full article

This study analyzed ancient DNA from the remains of horses unearthed from the Shihuyao tombs. These were found to date from the Han and Tang Dynasties in Xinjiang (approximately 2200 to 1100 years ago). Two high-quality mitochondrial genomes were acquired and analyzed using next-generation sequencing. The genomes were split into two maternal haplogroups, B and D, according to a study that included ancient and contemporary samples from Eurasia. A close genetic affinity was observed between the horse of the Tang Dynasty and Akhal-Teke horses according to the primitive horse haplotype G1. Historical evidence suggests that the ancient Silk Road had a vital role in their dissemination. Additionally, the matrilineal history of the Akhal-Teke horse was accessed and suggested that the early domestication of the breed was for military purposes. Full article