Search Results (1,123)

Activated carbon is a highly porous adsorbent material that is often used to treat wastewater using physical and chemical adsorption. Agricultural and urban biomass waste valorization to activated carbon is a low-cost, renewable solution to commercial adsorbents, and can help prevent waste from tree pruning from being dumped in landfills or openly burned. In this study, the ability of the ground and unground Ficus nitida leaves to efficiently adsorb Rhodamine B dye and total chromium from model aqueous solutions was investigated. Chemical activation was performed using phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) at different impregnation ratios (1:1, 2:1, and 4:1). Samples obtained as a result of the above activation were labeled G1–G3 (ground) and UG1–UG3 (unground). The adsorption test showed that the samples with the highest activation ratio (G3 and UG3) gave the best results, removing 92% and 94% RhB, respectively, in 20 minutes. After 24 h, sample G3 showed the best efficiency of 73.31% (13.35 ppm remaining) in chromium removal, where the adsorption kinetics were well described by the pseudo-second-order model (R² > 0.98), indicating that there may be some chemical interactions occurring during the adsorption process along with physisorption, and the RhB adsorption isotherms for sample UG3 were well described by the Langmuir isotherm (R² > 0.95). The higher activation ratio and grinding increased the carbon content (up to 90% C for G3), surface functional groups, and textural properties (BET surface area of 699 m²/g and total pore volume of 3.06 cm³/g). Furthermore, reusability tests over five consecutive cycles demonstrated the excellent recyclability of sample G3, retaining removal efficiencies of 80.5% for RhB and 50.2% for total chromium. The results revealed that Ficus nitida leaf-based AC can be used as an efficient, economical, and reusable adsorbent material for sustainable environmental cleanup and water purification systems and will create a circular economy for waste management. Full article

Underground gas storage (UGS) facilities serve to balance natural gas networks within a given area. The nature of natural gas network balancing is twofold: long-term (seasonal) during periods of significant gas withdrawal (the cold half-year) and short-term (daily) during periods of peak natural gas demand throughout the day. The first type of balancing has been a standard characteristic for many years, covering increased demand during the winter season. In contrast, the importance of daily balancing is growing alongside the ongoing energy transition, where natural gas-based power generation sources flexibly replace renewable energy sources that are dependent on the time of day or weather conditions. The necessity for increased balancing of energy systems makes them more sensitive to crisis situations. This article presents the key role of UGS as a fundamental resilience factor for European energy systems, particularly in the face of energy crises triggered by geopolitical instability. Conflicts are redefining the role of UGS as a pillar of energy security. This study analyzes how strategic gas reserves mitigate the effects of sudden supply disruptions and price shocks caused by geopolitical factors. It describes impact scenarios of two conflicts: Russia’s invasion on Ukraine and the conflict in the Persian Gulf leading to the closure of the Strait of Hormuz. While UGS is essential for the short-term management of natural gas supply flows, its long-term value lies in providing a “strategic buffer” that allows energy systems to adapt to unforeseen geopolitical conflicts. Integrated storage management is indispensable for maintaining the operational integrity of the European transmission and energy system during periods of heightened instability. The paper also identifies necessary directions for the development of UGS systems. Between 2016 and Q1 2026, the share of eastern gas imports declined from over 40% to 5.2%, while LNG increased to 41.7% of total inflows, confirming the strategic importance of underground gas storage in maintaining energy system resilience. Full article

The edible oil self-sufficiency rate of China is only approximately 30%, with rapeseed as the largest source of edible oil, contributing more than half of the total edible vegetable oil. Therefore, it is very important to achieve high rapeseed yield to ensure supply security. Fertilizer is one of the key factors affecting rapeseed yield and quality, and the appropriate use of fertilizer is essential for ensuring both high yield and high quality. To investigate the effects of fertilizer rates on the growth, yield, and quality of rapeseed, 18 rapeseed varieties were grown under two fertilizer input levels: normal fertilizer (NF, 15-15-15 NPK compound fertilizer at 600 kg·ha⁻¹) and high fertilizer (HF, 15-15-15 NPK compound fertilizer at 1200 kg·ha⁻¹). Agronomic traits, physiological indicators, yield, and quality of these varieties were systematically analyzed in this study. In addition, transcriptomic data from stems collected at the silique stage were used to identify key differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and the correlations between the expression levels of these candidate genes, physiological indicators, agronomic traits, and yield were examined. Compared with the NF treatment, the HF treatment promoted rapeseed growth during the bolting stage (except for root collar diameter). At harvest, 27.8% of the rapeseed varieties showed a significant increase in the number of effective branches per plant, while 33.3% exhibited significant increases in both the number of effective siliques per plant and the yield per plant. Among these varieties, Z01, Z02, Huayouza 50, and Huayouza 652 showed the greatest overall yield increases. The oil content decreased in 88.9% of the varieties, whereas the unsaturated fatty acid content increased in 77.8%, and the protein content increased in 94.4% of the varieties. Under HF treatment, superoxide dismutase activity in leaves at the bolting stage and peroxidase activity in leaves at the initial flowering stage both increased significantly (by 19.07% and 10.41%, respectively). The content of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (expressed as malondialdehyde equivalents) in stems at the initial flowering stage increased significantly (by 138.39%). In addition, catalase activity in leaves at the 3- to 4-leaf stage reached its highest value among all treatments (27.31 U·g⁻¹·min⁻¹·FW). The KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that the DEGs were significantly enriched in secondary metabolite biosynthesis, plant hormone signal transduction, plant–pathogen interactions, and metabolic pathways. Through screening against the NCBI database and subsequent validation by RT-qPCR, we ultimately identified four candidate DEGs: BnaC05g02370D, BnaC09g49910D, BnaC03g45470D, and BnaA04g00130D. Among these four varieties, catalase activity and malondialdehyde content in rapeseed stems at the initial flowering stage showed significant positive correlations with yield (r = 0.738 and r = 0.894, respectively). BnaC09g49910D maintained a consistently positive correlation with yield under both the HF and NF treatments (r = 0.977 and r = 0.806, respectively). In contrast, the direction of the association for BnaC05g02370D reversed depending on the fertilizer level (r = −0.858 under HF vs. r = 0.443 under NF). Catalase activity and the content of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances in stems at the initial flowering stage and the expression levels of BnaC05g02370D and BnaC09g49910D in stems at the silique stage are associated with yield to varying degrees. These indicators can be used as candidate traits for assessing rapeseed yield potential under different fertilizer input levels. Full article

Urban green space (UGS) service mismatch is a key public space issue that needs to be addressed in the renewal of built-up urban areas. Existing studies have mostly evaluated UGS service levels from the perspective of green space supply or accessibility, but have paid insufficient attention to the mismatch among population demand, UGS supply, and UGS accessibility, as well as the built environment contexts associated with different mismatch types. Taking the urban core of Shenyang as a case study, this study constructs a UGS service mismatch typology and combines non-UGS built environment indicators, XGBoost, and SHAP to identify the spatial characteristics and nonlinear model-based associations of different mismatch types. The results indicate the following: (1) UGS service problems in the urban core of Shenyang can be divided into five types. Priority Improvement Area, Potential Activation Area, and Resource-rich Area together account for 56.05% of the study area, indicating that the mismatch among demand, resources, and accessibility has a high spatial coverage. (2) Different mismatch types correspond to differentiated built environment profiles. Priority Improvement Area co-occurs with service shortage, weak functional concentration, low development intensity, and weak transit support. Potential Activation Area has relatively good functional and transport foundations, but its UGS service transformation remains insufficient. (3) SHAP results show that public transit proximity, functional concentration, and building form are key indicators associated with model-based type differentiation. The contributions of mean building floor and POI density to Priority Improvement Area decline after exceeding their breakpoints, indicating that, within the model, this type is more likely to occur in areas with insufficient development intensity and functional concentration. By integrating the demand–supply–accessibility relationship, UGS service mismatch typology, and built environment characterization, this study provides a more spatially targeted analytical framework for UGS service diagnosis in built-up urban areas, and supports the shift from uniform green space provision to type-specific service optimization. Full article

Background: Klebsiella pneumoniae is an opportunistic zoonotic pathogen that can cause respiratory diseases in chickens. The aim of this study was to investigate the biofilm formation, resistance, and virulence of K. pneumoniae isolates from chickens in Henan Province, China, between 2023 and 2025, and to analyze the associations among these characteristics. Methods: We identified the isolates through blood agar culture, Gram staining and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Hypermucoviscosity phenotype, biofilm-forming ability, antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes were assessed by the string test, crystal violet assay, disk diffusion and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively. Results: A total of 102 K. pneumoniae isolates were identified. Of these, 81.4% were biofilm-forming strains, and 15.7% exhibited the hypermucoviscosity phenotype. The susceptibility profiles of the K. pneumoniae isolates indicated high resistance to penicillins (>90.0%) and low resistance to carbapenems (<10%), with 88.2% identified as multidrug-resistant. The results of virulence gene detection indicated that luxS (79.4%), mrkD (75.5%), and uge (73.5%) were the most prevalent virulence genes, followed by wabG (49.0%), ybtA (34.3%), and iucA (20.6%). The association analysis indicated that biofilm formation was significant association with multidrug-resistant and the carriage of virulence genes. Compared with non–biofilm–forming isolates, biofilm–forming isolates showed significantly higher resistance to ceftiofur and florfenicol, as well as higher detection rates of luxS, mrkD, and uge (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The data obtained in this study reveal the pathogenic potential and multidrug–resistant characteristics of this pathogen, highlighting the need for surveillance and monitoring. Full article

High-resolution remote sensing imagery provides valuable data support for accurate binary urban green space extraction. However, due to complex urban backgrounds, existing methods still face challenges in accurately delineating green space boundaries and preserving fine-scale spatial details. To address these issues, this study proposes a novel network, termed Hierarchical Gated Residual Fusion and High-Frequency Guided Deformable Upsampler Network (HGRHDNet), for boundary-enhanced urban green space segmentation. The proposed framework adopts ConvNeXt-L as the encoder backbone and incorporates a Hierarchical Gated Residual Fusion Decoder (HGRFD) to adaptively fuse multi-scale features through dynamic weighting and residual feature propagation. In addition, a High-Frequency Guided Deformable Upsampler (HFGDU) is introduced to enhance high-frequency detail reconstruction and cross-resolution feature alignment, thereby improving boundary localization accuracy. The proposed method was evaluated on three public datasets with different spatial resolutions and spectral characteristics, including WHDLD, UGS-1m, and UBGG. Experimental results show that HGRHDNet achieves Boundary Intersection over Union (BIoU) values of 43.82%, 18.22%, and 64.55% on the three datasets, respectively, consistently outperforming state-of-the-art methods. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses demonstrate that HGRHDNet effectively preserves narrow gaps between adjacent green spaces, elongated vegetation structures, and fragmented green space patches while reducing boundary ambiguity in complex urban environments. These results indicate that HGRHDNet provides a robust and effective solution for high-resolution urban green space extraction and has considerable potential for applications in urban ecological assessment, green space inventory, and sustainable urban planning. Full article

This study developed a compound enzyme-assisted microbially fermented concentrate for Yanbian steers. The enzyme formulation was optimized using response surface methodology, with acid-soluble protein/crude protein ratio (ASP/CP), ammonia-N/total N ratio (AN/TN), and pH as response variables. The optimized enzyme preparation contained 619.15 U/g protease, 742.08 U/g amylase, and 257.75 U/g β-mannanase. The measured ASP/CP, AN/TN, and pH values were 31.74%, 3.56%, and 4.32, respectively, closely agreeing with the predicted values of 32.00%, 3.55%, and 4.28. Membership function analysis, which normalized positive and negative indicators to a common 0–1 scale and integrated them into a comprehensive score, supported the selection of day 5 as the most balanced fermentation duration under the primary equal-indicator weighting scheme. Thirty Yanbian steers were randomly assigned to receive microbially fermented concentrate without compound enzyme addition (MF) or compound enzyme-assisted microbially fermented concentrate (MEF) at 500 g/head/day on an as-fed basis for 100 days. After adjustment for initial body weight using ANCOVA, MEF increased final body weight by 3.9% and average daily gain by 35.7% compared with MF (both p < 0.001). MEF also increased dry matter intake by 12.1% (p = 0.018) and reduced feed conversion ratio by 18.4% (p = 0.008). MEF increased dry matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, and acid detergent fiber digestibility by 4.3%, 5.4%, 22.6%, and 15.6%, respectively, and reduced blood urea nitrogen by 18.9%. MEF also increased ruminal total volatile fatty acids and decreased ruminal NH₃-N and the acetate-to-propionate ratio (p < 0.05). Observed ASVs, Chao1, and Shannon indices did not differ between treatments, whereas PERMANOVA detected a significant difference in overall rumen bacterial community structure (R² = 0.180, p = 0.023). VIF-based redundancy analysis indicated that variation in rumen bacterial community structure were correlated with crude protein digestibility, total volatile fatty acids, and blood urea nitrogen. Overall, within the microbial-fermentation system evaluated in this study, compound enzyme addition increased growth performance and apparent nutrient digestibility, reduced ruminal NH₃-N and blood urea nitrogen concentrations, and improved feed efficiency in Yanbian steers. Full article

Digital Content Marketing (DCM) has become a key tool for brands to influence Brand Attitude on social commerce platforms, but its impact on consumer perception remains poorly understood in the emerging market context of the hospitality industry. Based on the theory of Uses and Gratifications (U&G), this study aims to explore the direct and indirect impact of DCM on Brand Attitude, with Consumer Trust and Digital Engagement playing mediating roles among social commerce consumers in Iraq. A quantitative cross-sectional design was employed, with 386 respondents obtained using the social media distribution of a self-administered online questionnaire. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was used in Smart PLS 4.0 to analyse the proposed model. All eight hypotheses were supported. Consumer Trust (β = 0.487) and Digital Engagement (β = 0.361) were both positively influenced by DCM, and both mediators had significant positive effects on Brand Attitude (β = 0.394 and β = 0.286, respectively). The total indirect effect of DCM on Brand Attitude (β = 0.351) was significantly larger than the direct effect (β = 0.187), supporting the strength of mediated effects. Serial mediation through Trust and then Engagement was also confirmed. These findings extend the application of U&G theory within an Iraqi social commerce context and offer evidence-based implications for hospitality brands designing content strategies on digital platforms. The findings are only applicable within the context of Iraq and the non-probability sample studied. Full article

Chinese distillers’ grains (CDGs) are a lignocellulose-rich agricultural byproduct with considerable bioconversion potential; however, their recalcitrant structure imposes a major bottleneck for efficient valorization. In this study, six white-rot fungal strains and two Trichoderma strains were isolated from wild macrofungi, among which Ganoderma sp. 2G1-6 exhibited the highest laccase activity, reaching 11.29 U/mL. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a 49.15 Mb genome containing 12,437 predicted proteins, including a substantial repertoire of 196 glycoside hydrolases and 113 auxiliary activity enzymes implicated in lignocellulose degradation. Solid-state fermentation of CDGs with Ganoderma sp. 2G1-6 produced high enzyme activities, including endoglucanase (13.3 ± 4.6 U/g), xylanase (538.8 ± 33.0 U/g), β-glucosidase (26,572 ± 2996 U/g), and laccase (231.2 ± 16.7 U/g). Concomitantly, the nutritional profile of CDGs was markedly improved after 30 days, with crude protein increasing by 28.51%, acid-soluble protein by 33.33%, and soluble dietary fiber by 159%. Complementary structural analyses (FTIR, SEM, XRD, and TGA) confirmed progressive disruption of the lignocellulosic matrix, selective delignification, and enhanced cellulose exposure. These findings establish Ganoderma sp. 2G1-6 as a promising microbial chassis for CDGs valorization and provide preliminary functional profiles of Ganoderma species for lignocellulose bioconversion. Full article

Injectable trace mineral supplementation (ITMS) has been proposed to support physiological adaptation during critical stages in dairy cattle; however, field-based evidence from pasture-based seasonal-calving systems remains limited. This study evaluated the effects of ITMS, administered at birth in calves and approximately 30 days before fixed-time artificial insemination in early-lactation cows, primarily on erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase activity and plasma trace mineral concentrations, while health, growth, production, and fertility were monitored as secondary outcomes. Thirty newborn calves receiving isotonic saline control (CNTRL; n = 15) or ITMS (n = 15) and 50 early-lactation cows (CNTRL, n = 24; ITMS, n = 26) were enrolled. In calves, erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase activity was higher in ITMS calves (322 vs. 359 U/g Hb; p < 0.01), and plasma selenium was higher on day 15 (0.57 vs. 0.62 µmol/L; p = 0.03). A treatment × week interaction was detected for body weight, but overall body weight and average daily gain did not differ. In cows, plasma selenium was transiently higher in multiparous ITMS cows on day 15 (1.04 vs. 1.09 µmol/L; p = 0.03), while antioxidant and inflammatory biomarkers, production, mastitis incidence, and fertility were unaffected. Overall, a single ITMS administration elicited modest biochemical and selenium responses without statistically detectable improvements in growth, health, production, or fertility. Full article

The assimilation capacity of the biosphere and the sustainability of the living resources are enhanced by the efficient and continued contribution of the vegetation from all ecoregions of the Earth. The urban greenery fulfills many regulatory ecosystem services (RES) as well. In this regard, the importance of urban green spaces (UGS) in helping to reduce the adverse impacts of overcrowding and changing climate is of pertinence. Lack of quantitative information from urban settings in different climatic regions seriously constrains the recognition of the important role UGS play in carbon storage and sequestration. To assess how the UGS is aiding the retention of carbon, which is photosynthetically assimilated into biomass and/or sequestered, relevant field parameters were collected from 4010 trees belonging to 34 different species, different hedge plants, and groundcover grasses spread in 24,991 m² area in three parks of Panaji city, India. Standard methods were followed to derive carbon stock and sequestration rates by trees, hedge plants, and groundcover. Notwithstanding wide differences between tree species, the weighted mean of CO₂ sequestered per tree averaged 55 kg y⁻¹ (ca. 78.82 tons ha⁻¹) in Panaji city. Accordingly, the CO₂ sequestration potential of trees, in the UGS of Panaji (by 76,751 trees) and Tumkur (with an estimated 38,152 trees) cities, respectively, was 4221.31 tons y⁻¹ ha⁻¹ and 2098 tons ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ @ 55 kg tree⁻¹ y⁻¹. It is apparent from this first-time study that calculated tree carbon biomass and species-wise yearly carbon sequestration rates (CSRs) of 78.82 tons ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ and that of carbon production rates of 31.77 tons ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ are far higher than the previously reported CSR estimates variously from 1 to 8 tons ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ and carbon production rates 3.23 to 6.55 tons ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. The hedge row carbon biomass averaged 13.18 tons ha⁻¹ and sequestration of 48.38 tons ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ CO₂. Similarly, occupying over 42% of the UGS, the groundcover carbon biomass averaged 14.69 tons ha⁻¹ with sequestration of 53.92 tons CO₂ ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. Combined CSP of existing trees, groundcover, and hedge plants in Panaji and Tumkur city UGS apparently neutralize carbon footprint of over 4550 and 2200 Indians at an annual per capita emission of 1.94-ton. It is thus undeniable that in our global fight against climate change, the addition of inputs and data from studies like these can aid in planning mitigation measure as well as in fulfilling local/regional sustainability plans and needs. Full article

Regular physical activity (PA) is essential for healthy aging. For older adults residing in urban areas, access to urban green space (UGS) can help increase PA levels. This systematic review examined the association between availability, accessibility, and attractiveness of the UGS on PA among older adults. PubMed, CINAHL, and Web of Science were searched for articles published 2016–2024 that used quantitative methods to explore associations between the qualities of UGS and measures of PA in this demographic. Findings from nine studies from Europe, China, Hong Kong, and Australia were synthesized by availability, accessibility, and attractiveness domains. For availability, the presence and size of UGS were positively associated with older adults’ PA in several studies, whereas UGS proximity was inconsistently associated with PA. For accessibility, infrastructure-related features such as trail length were positively associated with PA, but findings for park features and safety were mixed. Results were also inconsistent for attractiveness; some land-cover and amenity features showed positive associations, while others showed no clear relationship with PA. In addition to variability in associations, there was great heterogeneity across studies in age inclusion criteria (e.g., 45+ vs. 65+), participant inclusion criteria, setting, operationalization of UGS quality, PA measures, and study rigor, reducing the ability to draw conclusions about the association between UGS qualities and PA. Although findings can begin to inform urban planners, public health professionals, and policymakers in designing UGS to promote PA in older adults, the field would benefit from more consistent definitions and measures of UGS qualities and PA. Full article

Underground gas storage converted from depleted oil and gas reservoirs requires reliable long-term sealing of caprocks, faults, and other geological barriers during cyclic injection and withdrawal. Conventional evaluations mainly focus on static geological parameters, whereas the effects of stress evolution during operation are often insufficiently addressed. In contrast, four-dimensional geomechanical simulations based on fluid–solid coupling can capture the dynamic evolution of geological sealing behavior under injection and withdrawal conditions. The review summarizes progress in heterogeneous geomechanical model construction, stress-field evolution under cyclic loading, dynamic sealing assessment of caprocks and faults, and determination of safe operating pressure limits. Geological sealing evaluation has evolved from a static assessment based on geological characteristics to a dynamic assessment controlled by mechanical criteria. Geostress inversion has developed from three-dimensional heterogeneous mechanical models to four-dimensional geomechanical dynamic coupling analyses that account for seepage, stress, temperature, and other factors. Safe pressure evaluation has also progressed from conventional gravity-driven storage construction to the assessment of critical pressure evolution during the safe operation stage. Existing studies indicate that heterogeneous parameter characterization, coupled flow-stress simulation, and dynamic pressure management strongly affect the reliability of sealing evaluation in reservoir-type UGS. The results further show that pressure history, stress redistribution, and creep effects should be considered together when assessing long-term storage safety. The engineering cases listed at the end of this paper verify some of the research findings. The results presented above are of great significance for the construction and safe operation of reservoir-type gas storage facilities. Full article

Secondary inorganic aerosols (SIAs) are critical components of regional air pollution, yet uncertainties in bottom–up emission inventories lead to biases in the simulation of nitrate (PNO₃⁻) and ammonium (PNH₄⁺). This study utilizes a joint NO_x−NH₃ inversion inventory constrained by satellite observations to investigate the response characteristics of SIAs to precursor reductions in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region during July 2020. Results indicate that the a priori emission inventory significantly underestimated NH₃ emissions in the BTH region, with a posteriori emission in cities such as Shijiazhuang and Handan increasing to 2–3 times the a priori levels, while NO_x emissions were slightly underestimated. Sensitivity analysis conducted via Comprehensive Air Quality Model with extensions (CAMx)—Decoupled Direct Method (DDM) reveals that the sensitivities of PNO₃⁻ and PNH₄⁺ to precursor variations are higher in south–central BTH; specifically, the sensitivity of PNO₃⁻ concentration to NO_x emission abatement under the a posteriori inventory rises substantially compared with a priori estimates, with relative growth rates spanning 33% to 308% across the study domain. Scenario simulations demonstrate that synergistic NO_x and NH₃ control is the most effective strategy, reducing PNO₃⁻ and PNH₄⁺ concentrations by 2.27 ug/m³ and 0.77 ug/m³, respectively. Full article

There is currently a need for high-value applications of vinegar residue, a major byproduct generated during vinegar production, in order to benefit the environment and economic development. Melanoidins exist in vinegar residue as brown and bioactive macromolecules which are produced during the vinegar brewing process. However, the physicochemical characteristics and potential immunomodulatory activity of melanoidins from vinegar residue (VRM) have yet to be clarified. In this study, VRM exhibited structural heterogeneity, with a molecular weight of 9005.42 Da. Carbohydrates were the dominant component, accounting for 57.86 ± 3.36% (w/w), and xylose was the primary monosaccharide, with molar ratios of 53.15%. In addition, microstructural observations showed clear edges and a relatively smooth surface in VRM samples. Spectral analysis with FTIR showed that VRM has broad-spectrum ultraviolet absorption capacity and contains hydroxyl groups and unsaturated structures. Meanwhile, VRM exhibited higher antioxidant capacity than vinegar melanoidins according to ABTS and FRAP. Furthermore, the effects of VRM on immunomodulation were investigated in macrophages. VRM significantly induced phagocytic capacity and the secretion of NO, TNF-α, and IL-6. VRM at 800 ug/mL effectively exerted an immunomodulatory effect, which was associated with the TLR4-mediated NF-κB pathway. These findings demonstrate that VRM has a polysaccharide skeleton cross-linked with proteins and polyphenols, and possesses antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties. It will provide a novel and functional product for the efficient utilization of vinegar residue. Full article