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Keywords = UNECE R11 regulation

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19 pages, 9232 KiB  
Article
Peculiarities of Assessing Body Strength When Converting a Bus from Diesel to Electric Traction Following the UNECE R100 Regulation
by Kostyantyn Holenko, Oleksandr Dykha, Eugeniusz Koda, Ivan Kernytskyy, Orest Horbay, Yuriy Royko, Ruslan Humeniuk, Yaroslav Sholudko, Vasyl Rys, Serhii Berezovetskyi, Tomasz Wierzbicki and Anna Markiewicz
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(14), 8115; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15148115 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 223
Abstract
The problem of the conversion of diesel buses to electric ones in connection with the inevitable introduction of the EURO 7 emission standards entails an automatic requirement to follow several additional United Nations Economic Commission for Europe rules, like R100 regulations. They regulate [...] Read more.
The problem of the conversion of diesel buses to electric ones in connection with the inevitable introduction of the EURO 7 emission standards entails an automatic requirement to follow several additional United Nations Economic Commission for Europe rules, like R100 regulations. They regulate the preservation of battery units at longitudinal 12 g and transverse 10 g accelerations without penetrating into the elements of the bus body. Three models (12 modes in total) of battery units with frames made of S235 steel were analysed. The maximum stress value varies between 364.89 MPa and 439.08 MPa in 10 g and 12 g modes, respectively, which is beyond the tensile strength (360 MPa) and provokes plastic deformations. The max deformations were recorded in the models with the highest average stress: 63.04 mm in the 12 g mode with an average stress of 83.18 MPa. The minimum deformations of 6.95 and 7.95 mm were found in the 10 g modes (left and right acceleration direction, respectively), which meet the manufacturer’s requirements (45–50 mm maximum). The study’s primary contribution lies in developing a practical method for assessing battery unit integrity and structural behaviour during the conversion of diesel buses to electric propulsion, fully compliant with R100 regulations. By combining transient structural simulation, mathematical centre modelling of acceleration propagation, and centre of gravity prediction, the proposed approach enables engineers to evaluate electric conversions’ safety and certification feasibility without modifying the existing bus body. Full article
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14 pages, 6648 KiB  
Article
Pre-Test of a Stand for Testing Fire Resistance of Compressed Hydrogen Storage Systems
by Grzegorz Kubica, Marek Flekiewicz, Paweł Fabiś, Paweł Marzec and Piotr Hemlecki
Energies 2025, 18(6), 1368; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061368 - 11 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 632
Abstract
The publication presents methods and pre-test results of a stand for testing CHSS in terms of resistance to open fire. The basis for the conducted research is the applicable provisions contained in the UN/ECE Regulation R134. The study includes an overview of contemporary [...] Read more.
The publication presents methods and pre-test results of a stand for testing CHSS in terms of resistance to open fire. The basis for the conducted research is the applicable provisions contained in the UN/ECE Regulation R134. The study includes an overview of contemporary solutions for hydrogen storage systems in high-pressure tanks in means of transport. Development in this area is a response to the challenge of reducing global carbon dioxide emissions and limiting the emissions of toxic compounds. The variety of storage systems used is driven by constraints, including energy demand and available space. New tank designs and conducted tests allow for an improvement in systems in terms of their functionality and safety. Today, the advancement of modern technologies for producing high-pressure tanks allows for the use of working pressures up to 70 MPa. The main goal of the presented research is to present the requirements and research methodology verifying the tank structure and the security systems used in open-fire conditions. These tests are the final stage of the approval process for individual pressure vessels or complete hydrogen storage systems. Their essence is to eliminate the occurrence of an explosion in the event of a fire. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A5: Hydrogen Energy)
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19 pages, 19517 KiB  
Article
Design and Implementation of the Python-Driven Digital Horn System: A Novel Approach for Electric Vehicle Sound Systems
by Hakan Tekin, Hikmet Karşıyaka and Davut Ertekin
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 10977; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142310977 - 26 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1348
Abstract
Electric and hybrid vehicles are known for their significant reduction in road noise. However, concerns have emerged regarding their silent operation, potentially increasing risks for other road users. To mitigate this, the Acoustic Vehicle Alert System (AVAS) has been mandated by regulations such [...] Read more.
Electric and hybrid vehicles are known for their significant reduction in road noise. However, concerns have emerged regarding their silent operation, potentially increasing risks for other road users. To mitigate this, the Acoustic Vehicle Alert System (AVAS) has been mandated by regulations such as R138 by UNECE in the USA and Europe. This regulation dictates the generation of sound in electric vehicles of categories M and N1 during normal, reverse, and forward motion without the internal combustion engine engaged. Compliance involves meeting specific sound requirements based on vehicle mode and condition. This paper introduces a Python-based approach to designing digital horn sounds, leveraging music theory and signal processing techniques to replace traditional mechanical horns in electric vehicles equipped with AVAS devices. The aim is to offer a practical and efficient means of generating digital horn sounds using this software. The software includes an application capable of producing and customizing horn sounds, with the HornSoundGeneratorGUI class providing a user-friendly interface built with the Tkinter library. To validate the digital horn produced sounds by the software and ensure compliance with AVAS regulations, comprehensive electrical and acoustic tests were conducted in a fully equipped quality laboratory. The results demonstrated that the sound levels achieved met the required 105–107 dB/2 m standard specified by the regulation. Full article
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14 pages, 7666 KiB  
Article
Validation of Frontal Crashworthiness Simulation for Low-Entry Type Bus Body According to UNECE R29 Requirements
by Kostyantyn Holenko, Oleksandr Dykha, Eugeniusz Koda, Ivan Kernytskyy, Yuriy Royko, Orest Horbay, Oksana Berezovetska, Vasyl Rys, Ruslan Humenuyk, Serhii Berezovetskyi, Mariusz Żółtowski, Anna Markiewicz and Tomasz Wierzbicki
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(13), 5595; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135595 - 27 Jun 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2018
Abstract
Frontal crash tests are an essential element in assessing vehicle safety. They simulate a collision that occurs when the front of the bus hits another vehicle or an obstacle. In recent years, much attention has been paid to the frontal crash testing of [...] Read more.
Frontal crash tests are an essential element in assessing vehicle safety. They simulate a collision that occurs when the front of the bus hits another vehicle or an obstacle. In recent years, much attention has been paid to the frontal crash testing of city buses, especially after a series of accidents resulting in deaths and injuries. Unlike car manufacturers, most bus bodybuilders do not include deformation zones in their designs. The next two regulations are widely used to assess whether a structure can withstand impact loading: UNECE Regulation No. 29—United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE R29) and the New Car Assessment Program (NCAP), which is more typical of car crash tests. The main goal of the research is to develop an applicable methodology for a frontal impact simulation on a city bus, considering UNECE R29 requirements for the passenger’s safety and distinctive features of the low-entry body layout. Among the contributions to current knowledge are such research results as: unlike suburban and intercity buses, city buses are characterized by lower stiffness in the event of a frontal collision, and therefore, when developing new models, it is necessary to lay deformation zones (currently absent from most city buses). Maximum deformation values in the bus front part are reached earlier for R29 (137 ms) than for most impacts tested by NCAP (170–230 ms) but have higher values: 577 mm vs. 150–250 mm for the sills tested. Such a short shock absorption time and high deformations indicate a significantly lighter front part of a low-entry and low-floor bus compared with classic layouts. Furthermore, it is unjustified to use the R29 boundary conditions of trucks to attach the bus with chains behind its frontal axe both in natural tests and appropriate finite element simulation—the scheme of fixing the city bus should be accordingly adapted and normatively revised. Full article
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20 pages, 7278 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Accelerator Pedal Strength under Critical Loads Using the Finite Element Method
by Kostyantyn Holenko, Eugeniusz Koda, Ivan Kernytskyy, Oleg Babak, Orest Horbay, Vitalii Popovych, Marek Chalecki, Aleksandra Leśniewska, Serhii Berezovetskyi and Ruslan Humeniuk
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(11), 6684; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116684 - 31 May 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3102
Abstract
The core idea of the research consists in a formulation of boundary conditions of a mechanical accelerator pedal’s strength in an Ansys environment, whose conditions are equivalent to full-scale tests under the critical loads defined by the UNECE’s Regulation No. 13. The lack [...] Read more.
The core idea of the research consists in a formulation of boundary conditions of a mechanical accelerator pedal’s strength in an Ansys environment, whose conditions are equivalent to full-scale tests under the critical loads defined by the UNECE’s Regulation No. 13. The lack of regulatory requirements for the strength of pedal types other than brake pedals is a major gap in vehicle certification, especially when it comes to agricultural machinery. In such cases, the authors suggest being guided by UNECE R 13 regarding the strength of the accelerator and other types of pedals and checking their behavior under loads of at least 1000 N. The real value of the yield strength of the material (Silumin 4000) is very important, both in the physical real-life experiments and in FEA simulation. The critical case of a short-term shock loading of the pedal in its extreme position has been considered separately. With the help of the Ansys Explicit Dynamics module, results of a pedal’s behavior were obtained; it lost its integrity and suffered destruction. It is also necessary to check the intermediate stress values depending on the loads for direct and hybrid tasks using the Transient Structural module in order to estimate other critical cases of the pedal behavior. Full article
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27 pages, 3675 KiB  
Review
Cybersecurity Testing for Automotive Domain: A Survey
by Feng Luo, Xuan Zhang, Zhenyu Yang, Yifan Jiang, Jiajia Wang, Mingzhi Wu and Wanqiang Feng
Sensors 2022, 22(23), 9211; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22239211 - 26 Nov 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6808
Abstract
Modern vehicles are more complex and interconnected than ever before, which also means that attack surfaces for vehicles have increased significantly. Malicious cyberattacks will not only exploit personal privacy and property, but also affect the functional safety of electrical/electronic (E/E) safety-critical systems by [...] Read more.
Modern vehicles are more complex and interconnected than ever before, which also means that attack surfaces for vehicles have increased significantly. Malicious cyberattacks will not only exploit personal privacy and property, but also affect the functional safety of electrical/electronic (E/E) safety-critical systems by controlling the driving functionality, which is life-threatening. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct cybersecurity testing on vehicles to reveal and address relevant security threats and vulnerabilities. Cybersecurity standards and regulations issued in recent years, such as ISO/SAE 21434 and UNECE WP.29 regulations (R155 and R156), also emphasize the indispensability of cybersecurity verification and validation in the development lifecycle but lack specific technical details. Thus, this paper conducts a systematic and comprehensive review of the research and practice in the field of automotive cybersecurity testing, which can provide reference and advice for automotive security researchers and testers. We classify and discuss the security testing methods and testbeds in automotive engineering. Furthermore, we identify gaps and limitations in existing research and point out future challenges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Validation Methods in IoT Systems: Security, Performance and Safety)
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28 pages, 27697 KiB  
Review
Battery Crush Test Procedures in Standards and Regulation: Need for Augmentation and Harmonisation
by Bhavya Kotak, Yash Kotak, Katja Brade, Tibor Kubjatko and Hans-Georg Schweiger
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030063 - 16 Sep 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 18237
Abstract
Battery safety is a prominent concern for the deployment of electric vehicles (EVs). The battery powering an EV contains highly energetic active materials and flammable organic electrolytes. Usually, an EV battery catches fire due to its thermal runaway, either immediately at the time [...] Read more.
Battery safety is a prominent concern for the deployment of electric vehicles (EVs). The battery powering an EV contains highly energetic active materials and flammable organic electrolytes. Usually, an EV battery catches fire due to its thermal runaway, either immediately at the time of the accident or can take a while to gain enough heat to ignite the battery chemicals. There are numerous battery abuse testing standards and regulations available globally. Therefore, battery manufacturers are always in dilemma to choose the safest one. Henceforth, to find the optimal outcome of these two major issues, six standards (SAE J2464:2009, GB/T 31485-2015:2015, FreedomCAR:2006, ISO 12405-3:2014, IEC 62660-2:2010, and SAND2017-6295:2017) and two regulations (UN/ECE-R100.02:2013 and GTR 20:2018), that are followed by more than fifty countries in the world, are investigated in terms of their abuse battery testing conditions (crush test). This research proves that there is a need for (a) augmenting these standards and regulations as they do not consider real-life vehicle crash scenarios, and (b) one harmonised framework should be developed, which can be adopted worldwide. These outcomes will solve the battery manufacturers dilemma and will also increase the safety of EV consumers. Full article
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16 pages, 1564 KiB  
Article
A Machine Learning Model for Predicting Noise Limits of Motor Vehicles in UNECE R51 Regulations
by Gangping Tan, Qingshuang Chen, Changyin Li and Richard (Chunhui) Yang
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(22), 8092; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10228092 - 15 Nov 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3132
Abstract
It is vital to greatly reduce traffic noises emitted by motor vehicles during accelerating through determining limit values of noises and further improve technical specifications and comforts of these automobiles for automotive manufacturers. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) R51 regulations [...] Read more.
It is vital to greatly reduce traffic noises emitted by motor vehicles during accelerating through determining limit values of noises and further improve technical specifications and comforts of these automobiles for automotive manufacturers. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) R51 regulations define the noise limits for all vehicle categories, which are kept updating, and these noise limits are implemented by governments all over the world; however, the automobile manufactures need to estimate future values of noise limits for developing their next-generation vehicles. In this study, a machine learning model using the back-propagation neural network (BPNN) approach is developed to determine noise limits of a vehicle during accelerating by using historic data and predict its noise limits for future revisions of the UNECE R51 regulations. The proposed prediction model adopts the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm which can automatically adapt its learning rate to train the model with input data, and at the same time randomly select the validation data and test data to verify the correlation and determine the accuracy of the prediction results. To showcase the proposed prediction model, acceleration noise limits from six historic data are used for training the model, and the noise limits at the seventh version can be predicted and validated. As the results achieve a required accuracy, vehicle noise limits in the next revision as the future eighth version can be predicted based on these data. It can be found that the obtained prediction results are much close to those noise limits defined in current regulations and negative error ratios are reduced significantly, compared to those values obtained using a quadratic regression model. As a result, the proposed BPNN model can predict future noise limits for the next revision of the UNECE R51automotive noise limit regulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Manufacturing Technologies and Their Applications)
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20 pages, 4812 KiB  
Article
Determining Simulation Parameters of Prototype Door Hinge for Correlation between Simulation and Experimental Results in United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Regulation No: 11 Tests
by Onur Erol and Hande Güler Özgül
Designs 2019, 3(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs3010017 - 15 Mar 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 7632
Abstract
In this study, the simulation parameters of the door hinge were investigated in the Z direction to have a correlation between the experimental test and simulation. Tests and simulations were conducted according to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Regulation No: 11. [...] Read more.
In this study, the simulation parameters of the door hinge were investigated in the Z direction to have a correlation between the experimental test and simulation. Tests and simulations were conducted according to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Regulation No: 11. The simulation parameters, which are the friction coefficient of contacts, the effect of bush material assignment and effect of production imperfections, were examined respectively by utilizing the implicit solver of Ansys Mechanical Workbench 18 and the force-displacement curves were compared with experimental test results in order to decide the optimal settings of parameters. In a conclusion friction coefficient 0.2, non-linear bush material and realistic geometry model were considered as the optimal parameter settings for correlated Finite Element Model of the hinge. Full article
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