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Keywords = OPEX savings

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20 pages, 4105 KiB  
Article
Evaluating Waste Heat Potential for Fifth Generation District Heating and Cooling (5GDHC): Analysis Across 26 Building Types and Recovery Strategies
by Stanislav Chicherin
Processes 2025, 13(6), 1730; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13061730 - 31 May 2025
Viewed by 649
Abstract
Efficient cooling and heat recovery systems are becoming increasingly critical in large-scale commercial and industrial facilities, especially with the rising demand for sustainable energy solutions. Traditional air-conditioning and refrigeration systems often dissipate significant amounts of waste heat, which remains underutilized. This study addresses [...] Read more.
Efficient cooling and heat recovery systems are becoming increasingly critical in large-scale commercial and industrial facilities, especially with the rising demand for sustainable energy solutions. Traditional air-conditioning and refrigeration systems often dissipate significant amounts of waste heat, which remains underutilized. This study addresses the challenge of harnessing low-potential waste heat from such systems to support fifth-generation district heating and cooling (5GDHC) networks, particularly in moderate-temperate regions like Flanders, Belgium. To evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of waste heat recovery, a methodology is developed that integrates established performance metrics—such as the energy efficiency ratio (EER), power usage effectiveness (PUE), and specific cooling demand (kW/t)—with capital (CapEx) and operational expenditure (OpEx) assessments. Empirical correlations, including regression analysis based on manufacturer data and operational case studies, are used to estimate equipment sizing and system performance across three operational modes. The study includes detailed modeling of data centers, cold storage facilities, and large supermarkets, taking into account climatic conditions, load factors, and thermal capacities. Results indicate that average cooling loads typically reach 58% of peak demand, with seasonal coefficient of performance (SCOP) values ranging from 6.1 to a maximum of 10.3. Waste heat recovery potential varies significantly across building types, with conversion rates from 33% to 68%, averaging at 59%. In data centers using water-to-water heat pumps, energy production reaches 10.1 GWh/year in heat pump mode and 8.6 GWh/year in heat exchanger mode. Despite variations in system complexity and building characteristics, OpEx and CapEx values converge closely (within 2.5%), demonstrating a well-balanced configuration. Simulations also confirm that large buildings operating above a 55% capacity factor provide the most favorable conditions for integrating waste heat into 5GDHC systems. In conclusion, the proposed approach enables the scalable and efficient integration of low-grade waste heat into district energy networks. While climatic and technical constraints exist, especially concerning temperature thresholds and equipment design, the results show strong potential for energy savings up to 40% in well-optimized systems. This highlights the viability of retrofitting large-scale cooling systems for dual-purpose operation, offering both environmental and economic benefits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)
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31 pages, 5662 KiB  
Article
Advancing Sustainability Through Industrial Symbiosis: A Technoeconomic Approach Using Material Flow Cost Accounting and Cost–Benefit Analysis
by Héctor Leiva, Ignacio Julian, Lucía Ventura, Elin Wallin, Marcus Vendt, Rickard Fornell, Francisca Galindo Paniagua, Sonia Ascaso and Manuel Gomez-Perez
Sustainability 2025, 17(6), 2730; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062730 - 19 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 858
Abstract
Industrial symbiosis (IS) involves transferring waste materials and/or energy flows between stakeholders to enhance resource efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. The success of these transactions depends on supply–demand matching, technical feasibility of waste integration into industrial processes, economic savings, and compliance with legal [...] Read more.
Industrial symbiosis (IS) involves transferring waste materials and/or energy flows between stakeholders to enhance resource efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. The success of these transactions depends on supply–demand matching, technical feasibility of waste integration into industrial processes, economic savings, and compliance with legal and environmental regulations. This paper presents a methodology for the technoeconomic assessment of IS projects, integrating material flow cost accounting (MFCA) and cost–benefit analysis (CBA) incorporating CAPEX and OPEX considerations. MFCA, traditionally used to identify hidden costs from inefficiencies, is adapted here to assess resource utilisation across industry networks. The methodology is applied to two real-world demo cases: a novel fertiliser production process in Escombreras (Spain), where IS focuses on process optimisation and by-product valorisation, and an IS process design in Frövi (Sweden), where CO2 and residual energy flows are exchanged between industrial sectors. The results demonstrate the potential of MFCA-CBA integration to enhance decision making in IS implementation. In Spain, process optimisation led to a 50% reduction in operating costs, whereas, in Sweden, CO2 reutilisation resulted in a 30% increase in resource efficiency. These findings highlight the economic and environmental benefits of IS and provide insights into cost allocation and pricing strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Economic and Business Aspects of Sustainability)
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32 pages, 676 KiB  
Review
Affordable mRNA Novel Proteins, Recombinant Protein Conversions, and Biosimilars—Advice to Developers and Regulatory Agencies
by Sarfaraz K. Niazi
Biomedicines 2025, 13(1), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13010097 - 3 Jan 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2321
Abstract
mRNA technology can replace the expensive recombinant technology for every type of protein, making biological drugs more affordable. It can also expedite the entry of new biological drugs, and copies of approved mRNA products can be treated as generic or biosimilar products due [...] Read more.
mRNA technology can replace the expensive recombinant technology for every type of protein, making biological drugs more affordable. It can also expedite the entry of new biological drugs, and copies of approved mRNA products can be treated as generic or biosimilar products due to their chemical nature. The introduction of hundreds of new protein drugs have been blocked due to the high cost of recombinant development. The low CAPEX and OPEX associated with mRNA technology bring it within the reach of developing countries that are currently deprived of life-saving biological drugs. In this paper, we advise developers to introduce novel proteins and switch recombinant manufacturing to mRNA delivery, and we further advise regulatory authorities to allow for the approval of copies of mRNA products with less testing. We anticipate that mRNA technology will make protein drugs, such as natural and engineered proteins, monoclonal antibodies, and vaccines, accessible to billions of patients worldwide. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Drug Discovery, Development and Delivery)
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20 pages, 1628 KiB  
Review
Energy Efficiency for 5G and Beyond 5G: Potential, Limitations, and Future Directions
by Adrian Ichimescu, Nirvana Popescu, Eduard C. Popovici and Antonela Toma
Sensors 2024, 24(22), 7402; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24227402 - 20 Nov 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4351
Abstract
Energy efficiency constitutes a pivotal performance indicator for 5G New Radio (NR) networks and beyond, and achieving optimal efficiency necessitates the meticulous consideration of trade-offs against other performance parameters, including latency, throughput, connection densities, and reliability. Energy efficiency assumes it is of paramount [...] Read more.
Energy efficiency constitutes a pivotal performance indicator for 5G New Radio (NR) networks and beyond, and achieving optimal efficiency necessitates the meticulous consideration of trade-offs against other performance parameters, including latency, throughput, connection densities, and reliability. Energy efficiency assumes it is of paramount importance for both User Equipment (UE) to achieve battery prologue and base stations to achieve savings in power and operation cost. This paper presents an exhaustive review of power-saving research conducted for 5G and beyond 5G networks in recent years, elucidating the advantages, disadvantages, and key characteristics of each technique. Reinforcement learning, heuristic algorithms, genetic algorithms, Markov Decision Processes, and the hybridization of various standard algorithms inherent to 5G and 5G NR represent a subset of the available solutions that shall undergo scrutiny. In the final chapters, this work identifies key limitations, namely, computational expense, deployment complexity, and scalability constraints, and proposes a future research direction by theoretically exploring online learning, the clustering of the network base station, and hard HO to lower the consumption of networks like 2G or 4G. In lowering carbon emissions and lowering OPEX, these three additional features could help mobile network operators achieve their targets. Full article
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15 pages, 5048 KiB  
Article
Advancements in Battery Cell Finalization: Insights from an Expert Survey and Prospects for Process Optimization
by Tobias Robben, Christian Offermanns, Heiner Heimes and Achim Kampker
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(5), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15050219 - 17 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2193
Abstract
Battery cell finalization is a crucial process chain in battery manufacturing, contributing to a significant share of CAPEX and OPEX. Thus, there is a high cost-saving potential by improving the process chain. This research paper investigates various crucial facets of the cell finalization [...] Read more.
Battery cell finalization is a crucial process chain in battery manufacturing, contributing to a significant share of CAPEX and OPEX. Thus, there is a high cost-saving potential by improving the process chain. This research paper investigates various crucial facets of the cell finalization process in battery cell production through an expert survey. These include investment cost allocation, potential cost savings in sub-processes, reject generation, early detection of faulty cells, quality measurement techniques, and the utilization of inline data for early quality determination and real-time process control during the formation process. A solution approach for the implementation of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy for inline early quality determination is given. The results yield valuable insights for optimizing the formation process and enhancing product quality. Full article
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20 pages, 4067 KiB  
Article
Toward Optimal Virtualization: An Updated Comparative Analysis of Docker and LXD Container Technologies
by Daniel Silva, João Rafael and Alexandre Fonte
Computers 2024, 13(4), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040094 - 9 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4877
Abstract
Traditional hypervisor-assisted virtualization is a leading virtualization technology in data centers, providing cost savings (CapEx and OpEx), high availability, and disaster recovery. However, its inherent overhead may hinder performance and seems not scale or be flexible enough for certain applications, such as microservices, [...] Read more.
Traditional hypervisor-assisted virtualization is a leading virtualization technology in data centers, providing cost savings (CapEx and OpEx), high availability, and disaster recovery. However, its inherent overhead may hinder performance and seems not scale or be flexible enough for certain applications, such as microservices, where deploying an application using a virtual machine is a longer and resource-intensive process. Container-based virtualization has received attention, especially with Docker, as an alternative, which also facilitates continuous integration/continuous deployment (CI/CD). Meanwhile, LXD has reactivated the interest in Linux LXC containers, which provides unique operations, including live migration and full OS emulation. A careful analysis of both options is crucial for organizations to decide which best suits their needs. This study revisits key concepts about containers, exposes the advantages and limitations of each container technology, and provides an up-to-date performance comparison between both types of containers (applicational vs. system). Using extensive benchmarks and well-known workload metrics such as CPU scores, disk speed, and network throughput, we assess their performance and quantify their virtualization overhead. Our results show a clear overall trend toward meritorious performance and the maturity of both technologies (Docker and LXD), with low overhead and scalable performance. Notably, LXD shows greater stability with consistent performance variability. Full article
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25 pages, 9823 KiB  
Article
An Energy-Efficient Multi-Level Sleep Strategy for Periodic Uplink Transmission in Industrial Private 5G Networks
by Taehwa Kim, Seungjin Lee, Hyungwoo Choi, Hong-Shik Park and Junkyun Choi
Sensors 2023, 23(22), 9070; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23229070 - 9 Nov 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2012
Abstract
This paper proposes an energy-efficient multi-level sleep mode control for periodic transmission (MSC-PUT) in private fifth-generation (5G) networks. In general, private 5G networks meet IIoT requirements but face rising energy consumption due to dense base station (BS) deployment, particularly impacting operating expenses (OPEX). [...] Read more.
This paper proposes an energy-efficient multi-level sleep mode control for periodic transmission (MSC-PUT) in private fifth-generation (5G) networks. In general, private 5G networks meet IIoT requirements but face rising energy consumption due to dense base station (BS) deployment, particularly impacting operating expenses (OPEX). An approach of BS sleep mode has been studied to reduce energy consumption, but there has been insufficient consideration for the periodic uplink transmission of industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) devices. Additionally, 5G New Reno’s synchronization signal interval limits the effectiveness of the deepest sleep mode in reducing BS energy consumption. By addressing this issue, the aim of this paper is to propose an energy-efficient multi-level sleep mode control for periodic uplink transmission to improve the energy efficiency of BSs. In advance, we develop an energy-efficient model that considers the trade-off between throughput impairment caused by increased latency and energy saving by sleep mode operation for IIoT’s periodic uplink transmission. Then, we propose an approach based on proximal policy optimization (PPO) to determine the deep sleep mode of BSs, considering throughput impairment and energy efficiency. Our simulation results verify the proposed MSC-PUT algorithm’s effectiveness in terms of throughput, energy saving, and energy efficiency. Specifically, we verify that our proposed MSC-PUT enhances energy efficiency by nearly 27.5% when compared to conventional multi-level sleep operation and consumes less energy at 75.21% of the energy consumed by the conventional method while incurring a throughput impairment of nearly 4.2%. Numerical results show that the proposed algorithm can significantly reduce the energy consumption of BSs accounting for periodic uplink transmission of IIoT devices. Full article
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28 pages, 3227 KiB  
Article
Numerical Modeling and Economic Analysis of Ultrasonic-Assisted CO2 Absorption Process for Offshore Application
by Athirah Mohd Tamidi, Kok Keong Lau, Li Huey Ng, Siti Munirah Mhd Yusof, Nurulhuda Azmi, Shahidah Zakariya, Siti Hajar Khalit and Ven Chian Quek
Processes 2023, 11(11), 3089; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113089 - 27 Oct 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2144
Abstract
In the quest for net zero carbon emissions by 2050, Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is indispensable. The development of more efficient CO2 capture processes is essential. High-frequency ultrasonic irradiation is an emerging, intensified technique that can enhance the CO2 [...] Read more.
In the quest for net zero carbon emissions by 2050, Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is indispensable. The development of more efficient CO2 capture processes is essential. High-frequency ultrasonic irradiation is an emerging, intensified technique that can enhance the CO2 absorption process. To advance this technology toward commercialization, it is crucial to conduct a thorough economic analysis to allow the identification of the key cost component. While equipment sizing is essential in this economic assessment, there is a lack of numerical models for estimating the size and power consumption of ultrasonic absorbers. This study introduces a numerical model for these predictions. The model was then used to determine the economic feasibility of this emerging technique against the packed bed columns based on capital expenditure (CAPEX), operational expenditure (OPEX), and unit technical cost (UTC) for 20 years of plant operation. According to the economic analysis, ultrasonic intensification requires 34% less CAPEX due to its compact design. Although its OPEX is 11% higher due to the additional electricity needed for the ultrasonic transducers, the UTC is still 3% lower than the conventional packed bed column, demonstrating a potential cost savings in implementing the ultrasonic irradiation-assisted technique during the CO2 absorption process offshore. Full article
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28 pages, 5209 KiB  
Article
Water Management Adaptation to Climate Change in Mediterranean Semiarid Regions by Desalination and Photovoltaic Solar Energy, Spain
by Gabriel Gómez Martínez and Miguel Ángel Pérez Martín
Water 2023, 15(18), 3239; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15183239 - 11 Sep 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2359
Abstract
Integration of renewable energy sources and water production technologies is a must when facing water scarcity problems in semiarid regions, such as Mediterranean regions. The use of additional water resources and production methods, such as reclaimed water and, more specifically, desalinated water, means [...] Read more.
Integration of renewable energy sources and water production technologies is a must when facing water scarcity problems in semiarid regions, such as Mediterranean regions. The use of additional water resources and production methods, such as reclaimed water and, more specifically, desalinated water, means present and necessary water resources to introduce in the water balances to attend to water demands within a global warming and droughting scenario. These solutions have the inconvenience of energy/power needs and costs. However, the development of renewable energies like photovoltaic solar energy, with lower and lower costs and greater efficiency, makes these economically feasible facilities, reaching competitive production costs for marine or sea desalinated water by around 50% of reduction in energy costs and 20–30% of savings in final water production cost. This paper presents a practical project or action focused on the integration of renewable energies and new water resources by introducing a Photovoltaic Energy Plant (PVEP) as an energy source to feed a Seawater Desalination Treatment Plant (SWDTP). The PV facility is designed to cover all the energy demanded using the SWDTP during the day, and even studying the possibility of selling the energy production exceeds and injecting them into the energy supply network, covering the needs of buying energy needed during the high period where there is no photovoltaic energy production. Thus, savings related to energy costs and even incomes coming from energy sales mean an important reduction in operation costs or expenditures (OPEX), which makes economically feasible and sustainable the investment and the final price of water produced within the Mutxamel SWDTP. The final reduction cost in water desalination reaches 25% on average. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Carbon-Energy-Water Nexus in Global Energy Transition)
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16 pages, 3345 KiB  
Article
Supporting Heterogenous Traffic on Top of Point-to-Multipoint Light-Trees
by Masab Iqbal, Luis Velasco, Marc Ruiz, Nelson Costa, Antonio Napoli, Joao Pedro and Jaume Comellas
Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2500; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052500 - 23 Feb 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1960
Abstract
New 5 G and beyond services demand innovative solutions in optical transport to increase efficiency and flexibility and reduce capital (CAPEX) and operational (OPEX) expenditures to support heterogeneous and dynamic traffic. In this context, optical point-to-multipoint (P2MP) connectivity is seen as an alternative [...] Read more.
New 5 G and beyond services demand innovative solutions in optical transport to increase efficiency and flexibility and reduce capital (CAPEX) and operational (OPEX) expenditures to support heterogeneous and dynamic traffic. In this context, optical point-to-multipoint (P2MP) connectivity is seen as an alternative to provide connectivity to multiple sites from a single source, thus potentially both reducing CAPEX and OPEX. Digital subcarrier multiplexing (DSCM) has been shown as a feasible candidate for optical P2MP in view of its ability to generate multiple subcarriers (SC) in the frequency domain that can be used to serve several destinations. This paper proposes a different technology, named optical constellation slicing (OCS), that enables a source to communicate with multiple destinations by focusing on the time domain. OCS is described in detail and compared to DSCM by simulation, where the results show that both OCS and DSCM provide a good performance in terms of the bit error rate (BER) for access/metro applications. An exhaustive quantitative study is afterwards carried out to compare OCS and DSCM considering its support to dynamic packet layer P2P traffic only and mixed P2P and P2MP traffic; throughput, efficiency, and cost are used here as the metrics. As a baseline for comparison, the traditional optical P2P solution is also considered in this study. Numerical results show that OCS and DSCM provide a better efficiency and cost savings than traditional optical P2P connectivity. For P2P only traffic, OCS and DSCM are utmost 14.6% more efficient than the traditional lightpath solution, whereas for heterogeneous P2P + P2MP traffic, a 25% efficiency improvement is achieved, making OCS 12% more efficient than DSCM. Interestingly, the results show that for P2P only traffic, DSCM provides more savings of up to 12% than OCS, whereas for heterogeneous traffic, OCS can save up to 24.6% more than DSCM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Secure and Reliable Autonomous Optical Communications and Networks)
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19 pages, 674 KiB  
Article
ECO6G: Energy and Cost Analysis for Network Slicing Deployment in Beyond 5G Networks
by Anurag Thantharate, Ankita Vijay Tondwalkar, Cory Beard and Andres Kwasinski
Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8614; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228614 - 8 Nov 2022
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3269
Abstract
Fifth-generation (5G) wireless technology promises to be the critical enabler of use cases far beyond smartphones and other connected devices. This next-generation 5G wireless standard represents the changing face of connectivity by enabling elevated levels of automation through continuous optimization of several Key [...] Read more.
Fifth-generation (5G) wireless technology promises to be the critical enabler of use cases far beyond smartphones and other connected devices. This next-generation 5G wireless standard represents the changing face of connectivity by enabling elevated levels of automation through continuous optimization of several Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) such as latency, reliability, connection density, and energy efficiency. Mobile Network Operators (MNOs) must promote and implement innovative technologies and solutions to reduce network energy consumption while delivering high-speed and low-latency services to deploy energy-efficient 5G networks with a reduced carbon footprint. This research evaluates an energy-saving method using data-driven learning through load estimation for Beyond 5G (B5G) networks. The proposed ‘ECO6G’ model utilizes a supervised Machine Learning (ML) approach for forecasting traffic load and uses the estimated load to evaluate the energy efficiency and OPEX savings. The simulation results demonstrate a comparative analysis between the traditional time-series forecasting methods and the proposed ML model that utilizes learned parameters. Our ECO6G dataset is captured from measurements on a real-world operational 5G base station (BS). We showcase simulations using our ECO6G model for a given dataset and demonstrate that the proposed ECO6G model is accurate within $4.3 million over 100,000 BSs over 5 years compared to three other models that would increase OPEX cost from $370 million to $1.87 billion during varying network load scenarios against other data-driven and statistical learning models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in the Internet of Things Section 2022)
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16 pages, 1324 KiB  
Article
DC Optimal Power Flow Model to Assess the Irradiance Effect on the Sizing and Profitability of the PV-Battery System
by Fernando García-Muñoz, Miguel Alfaro, Guillermo Fuertes and Manuel Vargas
Energies 2022, 15(12), 4408; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15124408 - 16 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2344
Abstract
The decreasing cost of renewable energy resources and the developments in storage system technologies over recent years have increased the penetration of photovoltaic systems to face the high rise in the electricity load. Likewise, there has also been an increase in the demand [...] Read more.
The decreasing cost of renewable energy resources and the developments in storage system technologies over recent years have increased the penetration of photovoltaic systems to face the high rise in the electricity load. Likewise, there has also been an increase in the demand for tools that make this integration process in the current power systems profitable. This paper proposes a mathematical model based on the DC optimal power flow equations to find the optimal capacity of the PV panels and batteries for a standalone system or a system supported by the grid, while the investment and the energy required by the grid are minimized. In this regard, five different locations have been used as case studies to measure the influence of the irradiance level on the PV-Battery capacity installed and on the economic indicators such as CAPEX, OPEX, NPV, IRR, and the payback period. Thus, a modified 14-bus system has been used to replicate the grid technical limitations and show that a PV-Battery system connected to the grid could produce 26.9% more savings than a standalone PV-Battery and that a location with irradiance levels over 6.08 (kWh/m2/yr) could reduce the payback period for two years. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Performance of the Photovoltaic Systems)
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16 pages, 5378 KiB  
Article
Recovery of Hydrochloric Acid from Industrial Wastewater by Diffusion Dialysis Using a Spiral-Wound Module
by Arthur Merkel, Ladislav Čopák, Daniil Golubenko, Lukáš Dvořák, Matej Vavro, Andrey Yaroslavtsev and Libor Šeda
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(11), 6212; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23116212 - 1 Jun 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3597
Abstract
In the present study, the possibility of using a spiral-wound diffusion dialysis module was studied for the separation of hydrochloric acid and Zn2+, Ni2+, Cr3+, and Fe2+ salts. Diffusion dialysis recovered 68% of free HCl from [...] Read more.
In the present study, the possibility of using a spiral-wound diffusion dialysis module was studied for the separation of hydrochloric acid and Zn2+, Ni2+, Cr3+, and Fe2+ salts. Diffusion dialysis recovered 68% of free HCl from the spent pickling solution contaminated with heavy-metal-ion salts. A higher volumetric flowrate of the stripping medium recovered a more significant portion of free acid, namely, 77%. Transition metals (Fe, Ni, Cr) apart from Zn were rejected by >85%. Low retention of Zn (35%) relates to the diffusion of negatively charged chloro complexes through the anion-exchange membrane. The mechanical and transport properties of dialysis FAD-PET membrane under accelerated degradation conditions was investigated. Long-term tests coupled with the economic study have verified that diffusion dialysis is a suitable method for the treatment of spent acids, the salts of which are well soluble in water. Calculations predict significant annual OPEX savings, approximately up to 58%, favouring diffusion dialysis for implementation into wastewater management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ion and Molecule Transport in Membrane Systems 3.0)
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19 pages, 2083 KiB  
Article
A Proposal for Formulating a Spectrum Usage Fee for 5G Private Networks in Indonesian Industrial Areas
by Alfin Hikmaturokhman, Kalamullah Ramli, Muhammad Suryanegara, Anak Agung Putri Ratna, Ibrahim Kholilul Rohman and Moinul Zaber
Informatics 2022, 9(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics9020044 - 26 May 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4518
Abstract
The Indonesian spectrum usage fees—the so-called Biaya Hak Pengguna Frekuensi Izin Pita Frekuensi Radio (BHP IPFR)—are currently calculated using a formula determined by the three following main parameters: the frequency band, the country’s economic parameter, and the nationwide population. As spectrum usage fees [...] Read more.
The Indonesian spectrum usage fees—the so-called Biaya Hak Pengguna Frekuensi Izin Pita Frekuensi Radio (BHP IPFR)—are currently calculated using a formula determined by the three following main parameters: the frequency band, the country’s economic parameter, and the nationwide population. As spectrum usage fees are proportional to the width of the bandwidth, the current formula would result in an extremely high price when applied to 5G-mmWave private networks, with the cost burden being a direct consequence for the service operator. In this paper, we propose the formulation of a new spectrum usage fee for 5G-mmWave private network implementation in Indonesian industrial areas. To do so, we evaluate the current formula, adopt the framework offered by the ITU-R SM.2012-5 (06/2016), and use an industrial reference index—the Indonesia Industry Readiness Index 4.0 (INDI 4.0) score. We test the proposal by applying the new formula to calculate the 5G-mmWave private network spectrum usage fee for the Jakarta industrial area. The result shows that the new formula gives a lower spectrum usage fee than the current formula, which benefits 5G-mmWave private network service operators. Such savings can be regarded as a government subsidy for the service operators to use in various ways in the industry, providing further economic benefits. Using the input–output model, we prove that despite the proposed new formula brings a lower spectrum usage fee, resulting in a loss in state income, it will lead to a much greater positive impact on the national economic output. Applying the new formula will eventually have a multiplier effect on various sectors and encourage digital economic growth and national digital transformation, especially for vertical industries in Indonesia. This study may serve as a guideline or initial reference for Indonesian policymakers and service operators for applying the CAPEX and OPEX cost of using the new spectrum for 5G-mmWave private network service implementation and estimating the economic multiplier for 5G-mmWave private network service deployment in industrial areas. It can also be used as a benchmark case for other countries to apply spectrum usage fees for private networks in industrial areas. Full article
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15 pages, 880 KiB  
Article
Reduction of Cost and Environmental Impact in the Treatment of Textile Wastewater Using a Combined MBBR-MBR System
by Xuefei Yang and Víctor López-Grimau
Membranes 2021, 11(11), 892; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11110892 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4891
Abstract
A hybrid Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor—Membrane Bioreactor (MBBR-MBR) was developed for the treatment of wastewater from a Spanish textile company. Compared with conventional activated sludge (CAS) treatment, the feasibility of this hybrid system to reduce economic and environmental impact on an industrial scale [...] Read more.
A hybrid Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor—Membrane Bioreactor (MBBR-MBR) was developed for the treatment of wastewater from a Spanish textile company. Compared with conventional activated sludge (CAS) treatment, the feasibility of this hybrid system to reduce economic and environmental impact on an industrial scale was conducted. The results showed that, technically, the removal efficiency of COD, TSS and color reached 93%, 99% and 85%, respectively. The newly dyed fabrics performed with the treated wastewater were qualified under the standards of the textile industry. Economically, the values of Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) calculated for the hybrid MBBR-MBR system are profitable because of the reduction in Operational Expenditure (OPEX) when compared with CAS treatment, due to the lower effluent discharge tax thanks to the higher quality of the effluent and the decolorizing agent saved. The result of Net Present Value (NPV) and the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of 18% suggested that MBBR-MBR is financially applicable for implantation into the industrial scale. The MBBR-MBR treatment also showed lower environmental impacts than the CAS process in the life cycle assessment (LCA) study, especially in the category of climate change, thanks to the avoidance of using extra decolorizing agent, a synthetic product based on a triamine. Full article
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