Search Results (366)

The diet of dairy calves can be contaminated with mycotoxins, posing a potential risk to animal health. This case study report aimed to make the first assessment of the presence of multiple mycotoxins in concentrates fed to dairy calves in Brazil. A total of 19 concentrate samples intended for dairy calves were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, and T-2 toxin were not detected in any samples, whereas fumonisins B₁ (FB₁) and B₂ (FB₂) were present in 100% of the samples, with mean concentrations of 2750.1 μg/kg and 834.9 μg/kg, respectively. Zearalenone (ZEN) was detected in 36.8% of samples, with a mean concentration of 929.9 μg/kg. Significant correlations were observed between FB₁ and FB₂ (ρ = 0.978; p < 0.001) and between FB₂ and ZEN (ρ = 0.735; p = 0.05). While the physical form of the concentrate did not influence (p > 0.05) mycotoxin concentrations, a trend was observed for FB₁ (ρ = −0.417; p = 0.07) and FB2 (ρ = −0.395; p = 0.09). These findings highlight the frequent occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins, likely due to pre-harvest contamination, emphasizing the potential risk of additive or synergistic effects in dairy calves. Full article

Maize is a key crop in Ecuador for both human and animal consumption. Its vulnerability to fungal contamination and mycotoxins poses risks to food safety. The aim of this study was to analyze the occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins in maize grown in different regions of Ecuador (29 localities) and postharvest factors influencing contamination. Fungal identification was performed through culturing and morphological analysis. Analysis of multi-toxins was carried out using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Statistical analyses included PCA and linear regression models. Fungal contamination was found in 93.3% of samples; mycotoxins were present in 90%. Fusarium and Aspergillus were dominant. Fumonisins (66.6%), zearalenone (30%), aflatoxins (16.7%), and trichothecenes B (13.3%) were the most prevalent. Co-occurrence of up to three mycotoxins per sample was observed, more frequent on the coast. Grain moisture and temperature were strongly correlated with contamination levels. The study reveals widespread contamination of Ecuadorian maize, with environmental and postharvest factors playing key roles. This poses a food safety concern, highlighting the need for improved storage and monitoring systems. Full article

Fumonisin B1, deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEA) are toxic secondary metabolites produced by Fusarium molds. These mycotoxins are common food and feed pollutants and represent a risk to human and animal health. Although the mycotoxins produced by this genus can cross the blood–brain barrier in many species, their effect on neuronal function remains unclear. We investigated the cell viability effects of these toxins on specified neural cell types, including mouse primary neuronal, astroglial, and mixed-cell cultures 24 or 48 h after mycotoxin administration. DON decreased cell viability in a dose-dependent manner, independent of the culture type. Fumonisin B1 was toxic in pure neuronal cultures only at high doses, but toxicity was attenuated in mixed and pure astroglial cultures. ZEA had significant effects on all culture types in 10 nM by increasing cell viability and network activity, as revealed by multi-electrode array measurements. Since ZEA is a mycoestrogen, we analyzed the effects of ZEA on the expression of estrogen receptor isotypes ERα and ERβ and the mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel via qRT-PCR. In neuronal and mixed cultures, ZEA administration decreased ERα expression, while in astroglial cultures, it induced the opposite effect. Thus, our results emphasize that Fusarium mycotoxins act in a cell-specific manner. Full article

Several species of Fusarium are reported to infect inflorescences of high-THC-containing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) plants grown in greenhouses in Canada. These include F. graminearum, F. sporotrichiodes, F. proliferatum, and, to a lesser extent, F. oxysporum and F. solani. The greatest concern surrounding the infection of cannabis by these Fusarium species, which cause symptoms of bud rot, is the potential for the accumulation of mycotoxins that may go undetected. In the present study, both naturally infected and artificially infected inflorescence tissues were tested for the presence of fungal-derived toxins using HPLC-MS/MS analysis. Naturally infected cannabis tissues were confirmed to be infected by both F. avenaceum and F. graminearum using PCR. Pure cultures of these two species and F. sporotrichiodes were inoculated onto detached inflorescences of two cannabis genotypes, and after 7 days, they were dried and assayed for mycotoxin presence. In these assays, all Fusarium species grew prolifically over the tissue surface. Tissues infected by F. graminearum contained 3-acetyl DON, DON, and zearalenone in the ranges of 0.13–0.40, 1.18–1.91, and 31.8 to 56.2 μg/g, respectively, depending on the cannabis genotype. In F. sporotrichiodes-infected samples, HT2 and T2 mycotoxins were present at 13.9 and 10.9 μg/g in one genotype and were lower in the other. In F. avenaceum-inoculated tissues, the mycotoxins enniatin A, enniatin A1, enniatin B, and enniatin B1 were produced at varying concentrations, depending on the isolate and cannabis genotype. Unexpectedly, these tissues also contained detectable levels of 3-acetyl DON, DON, and zearalenone, which was attributed to apre-existing natural infection by F. graminearum that was confirmed by RT-qPCR. Beauvericin was detected in tissues infected by F. avenaceum and F. sporotrichiodes, but not by F. graminearum. Naturally infected, dried inflorescences from which F. avenaceum was recovered contained beauvericin, enniatin A1, enniatin B, and enniatin B1 as expected. Uninoculated cannabis inflorescences were free of mycotoxins except for culmorin at 0.348 μg/g, reflecting pre-existing infection by F. graminearum. The mycotoxin levels were markedly different between the two cannabis genotypes, despite comparable mycelial colonization. Tall fescue plants growing in the vicinity of the greenhouse were shown to harbor F. avenaceum and F. graminearum, suggesting a likely external source of inoculum. Isolates of both species from tall fescue produced mycotoxins when inoculated onto cannabis inflorescences. These findings demonstrate that infection by F. graminearum and F. avenaceum, either from artificial inoculation or natural inoculum originating from tall fescue plants, can lead to mycotoxin accumulation in cannabis inflorescences. However, extensive mycelial colonization following prolonged incubation of infected tissues under high humidity conditions is required. Inoculations with Penicillium citrinum and Aspergillus ochraceus under these conditions produced no detectable mycotoxins. The mycotoxins alternariol and tentoxin were detected in several inflorescence samples, likely as a result of natural infection by Alternaria spp. Fusarium avenaceum is reported to infect cannabis inflorescences for the first time and produces mycotoxins in diseased tissues. Full article

Resorcylic acid lactones (RALs) are fungal metabolites with known biological activity. Zeranol, a synthetic RAL, has been used as an estrogenic growth promoter in cattle; however, its use is prohibited in several countries. Zearalenone, a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium spp., is commonly found in contaminated animal feed and can be metabolized into other RALs, which are subsequently excreted in urine. To differentiate between natural contamination from feed and the illegal administration of zeranol, the European Union Reference Laboratory for Growth Promoters (EURL) developed a mathematical equation. This study aims to evaluate the detection and quantification of RALs in bovine urine from animals fed zearalenone-contaminated diets, implanted with zeranol, or subjected to both conditions. RALs were detected and quantified in the urine of cattle consuming contaminated corn, while zeranol and taleranol were identified in the urine of implanted animals. The EURL equation proved to be a valuable tool for determining the origin of RALs in bovine urine and holds significant potential for monitoring and enforcing regulations regarding the illegal use of zeranol. Full article

Fusarium spp. represent a critical threat to maize production and food safety due to their mycotoxin production. This study introduces a refined molecular identification protocol integrating four genomic regions—ITS1, IGS, TEF-1α, and β-TUB—for robust species differentiation of Fusarium spp. isolates from post-harvest maize in Bulgaria. The protocol enhances species resolution, especially for closely related taxa within the Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC). A newly optimized multiplex PCR strategy was developed using three primer sets, each designed to co-amplify a specific pair of toxigenic genes: fum6/fum8, tri5/tri6, and tri5/zea2. Although all five genes were analyzed, they were detected through separate two-target reactions, not in a single multiplex tube. Among 17 identified isolates, F. proliferatum (52.9%) dominated, followed by F. verticillioides, F. oxysporum, F. fujikuroi, and F. subglutinans. All isolates harbored at least one toxin biosynthesis gene, with 18% co-harboring genes for both fumonisins and zearalenone. This dual-protocol approach enhances diagnostic precision and supports targeted mycotoxin risk management strategies. Full article

T-2 toxin, a type A trichothecene mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species, is widely present in cereals and their processed products, posing a significant contaminant in food safety. To address the food safety challenges caused by this toxin, we established a dual signal enhancement by magnetic separation and split aptamer for ultrasensitive T-2 toxin detection. In this method, the introduction of magnetic graphene oxide (MGO) enhanced signal and increased sensitivity by reducing background interference. The shortened split aptamer reduces non-specific binding to MGO via decreased steric hindrance, thereby facilitating rapid target-induced dissociation and signal generation. A FAM fluorophore-labeled split aptamer probe FAM-SpA1-1 was quenched by MGO. While the fluorescence intensity remained nearly unchanged when the unlabeled split aptamer probe SpA1-2 was introduced alone, a significant fluorescence recovery was observed upon simultaneous addition of SpA1-2 and T-2 toxin. This recovery resulted from the cooperative binding of SpA1-1 and SpA1-2 to T-2 toxin, which distanced the FAM-SpA1-1 probe from MGO. Therefore, the proposed biosensor demonstrated excellent stability, reproducibility, and specificity, with a linear response range of 10–500 pM and a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.83 pM. Satisfactory recovery rates were achieved in spiked wheat (86.0–114.2%) and beer (112.0–129.6%) samples, highlighting the biosensor’s potential for practical applications in real-sample detection. This study establishes the T-2 toxin split aptamer and demonstrates a novel dual-signal enhancement paradigm that pushes the sensitivity frontier of aptamer-based mycotoxin sensors. Full article

Maize is one of the most important agricultural crops that has been cultivated in the Republic of Croatia for centuries. Fusarium mycotoxins as secondary metabolites of molds that naturally contaminate maize crops can have negative effects on human and animal health, but also on economic aspects. The aim of this study was to monitor the trend of natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins in maize crops from Croatia during a period of 10 years, from 2014 to 2024. A total of 1285 maize samples were analyzed for the contents of zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins B (FUM) and T-2/HT-2 toxin (T-2/HT-2) using validated ELISA methods. A high occurrence of the analyzed mycotoxins was found in all years examined, e.g., for ZEN 15–64%, DON 47–95%, FUM 60–96% and T-2/HT-2 24–89%. In addition, their concentrations ranged from 3.2–10,990 μg/kg, 18–25,000 μg/kg, 29–18,180 μg/kg and 9–595 μg/kg, respectively. The mycotoxin concentrations were found to differ from year to year, with an increasing trend observed for FUM and T-2/HT-2 in terms of concentrations and an increasing trend in the occurrence of all mycotoxins, with the exception of T-2/HT-2. Full article

This study investigates the presence of mycotoxins in green coffee-based dietary supplements to ensure their safety, given the potential risks of contamination and the growing interest in them among consumers. A sample treatment based on a salting-out assisted liquid–liquid extraction (SALLE) followed by one-step solid-phase extraction (SPE) was selected for the extraction and clean-up of 15 mycotoxins followed by ultra-high performance chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry detection (UHPLC-MS/MS). The target mycotoxins included aflatoxins (AFG1, AFG2, AFB1, AFB2), Alternaria toxins (AOH, AME, TEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FB1, FB2), zearalenone (ZEN), trichothecenes (T-2, HT-2), enniatin B1 (ENNB1), and beauvericin (BEA). The proposed method was successfully characterized, obtaining high recoveries, a satisfactory precision, and low detection limits. Subsequently, the method was applied for the analysis of 16 commercial food supplements. The analysis revealed the presence of mycotoxins in all samples investigated with Fusarium mycotoxins as the most prevalent. The dietary exposure and risk characterization revealed a low level of risk, except for AFs where chronic exposure in adults may lead to potential health concerns. Full article

Both organic and conventional farmers are confronted with the issue of mycotoxin contamination of maize, but organic farming is considered by the public to present a higher risk. There are also concerns about the sanitary quality of maize processed as a foodstuff and marketed on farms through short distribution channels, and there is a need for data on mycotoxin contamination in such a farming system. With the objective to assess the diversity of contamination levels at harvest and to track the post-harvest fate of mycotoxins, maize grain samples were collected at organic farms from southwest France after harvest, storage and milling. There was a wide range of levels of contamination by trichothecenes A and B, zearalenone, and fumonisins. The presence of ochratoxin A and aflatoxins was scarce. In some farms, but not all, the technique of drying and initial storage in cribs resulted in increased levels of contamination by Fusarium toxins, but not aflatoxins. The transfer of mycotoxins in milling products was higher for flour than for meal. Data are discussed in terms of mycotoxin co-occurrence, correlations between concentrations, and compliance with European Union regulations. Full article

Contamination of agricultural products by Fusarium species is a significant concern and is commonly found in various agricultural products. They cause severe economic losses in the products, and contaminate and threaten human and animal health due to the toxins they produce. Therefore, determining species diversity in various agricultural products is crucial. Bozcaada is well suited for cultivating the highest quality Çavuş grape due to its unique location and climate. Therefore, in this study, the sequencing of the tef1 and tub2 genes in Fusarium isolates from table Çavuş and wine grapes Karalahna, which are specific to Bozcaada, was performed, and their phylogenetic relationships were examined. As a result, it was determined that 11 of the 17 isolates were Fusarium annulatum from the Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC), 2 were Fusarium nirenbergiae from the Fusarium oxysporum species complex (FOSC), 2 were Fusarium fabacearum from the FOSC, and the last 2 isolates were Fusarium makinsoniae and Fusarium clavus (as ‘clavum’) from the F. incarnatum-equiseti species complex (FIESC). The F. makinsoniae and F. fabacearum species obtained in the study are the first recorded for Türkiye. This research highlights the variety of Fusarium species identified in Bozcaada vineyards in Türkiye. Full article

Trichothecene type A mycotoxins, such as T-2, HT-2, and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), are known to induce cytotoxicity and apoptosis in different cell types. As all three Fusarium toxins may occur concomitantly in a given food or feed commodity, there is growing interest in the effect of such mycotoxin mixtures. This study aimed to identify the toxic interactions among T-2, HT-2, and DAS in a human Jurkat cell model. As a first step, an MTT assay was used to assess cytotoxicity after 24 h of cell exposure to individual mycotoxins and their mixtures. The results were used to calculate the combination index (CI), which indicates the nature of the mycotoxin interactions. In Jurkat T cells, the toxicity ranking for the individual mycotoxins was T-2 > HT-2 > DAS. The CI values of the dual and triple mycotoxin combinations calculated from the results of the MTT and reactive oxygen species assays showed synergistic effects at low concentrations and an apparent antagonism at very high concentrations for all combinations. The additional cytometric analyses confirmed the synergistic effects, as expected, following co-exposure to the three tested trichothecenes. As the lower toxin concentrations investigated reflect natural contamination levels in food and feeds, the synergistic effects identified should be considered in risk characterization for trichothecene exposure in humans and animals. Full article

Cross-kingdom infections, where pathogens from one kingdom infect organisms of another, were historically regarded as rare anomalies with minimal concern. However, emerging evidence reveals their increasing prevalence and potential to disrupt the delicate balance between plant, animal, and human health systems. Traditionally recognized as plant-specific, a subset of phytopathogens, including certain fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes, have demonstrated the capacity to infect non-plant hosts, particularly immunocompromised individuals. These pathogens exploit conserved molecular mechanisms, such as immune evasion strategies, stress responses, and effector proteins, to breach host-specific barriers and establish infections. Specifically, fungal pathogens like Fusarium spp. and Colletotrichum spp. employ toxin-mediated cytotoxicity and cell-wall-degrading enzymes, while bacterial pathogens, such as Pseudomonas syringae, utilize type III secretion systems to manipulate host immune responses. Viral and nematode phytopathogens also exhibit molecular mimicry and host-derived RNA silencing suppressors to facilitate infections beyond plant hosts. This review features emerging cases of phytopathogen-driven animal and human infections and dissects the key molecular and ecological determinants that facilitate such cross-kingdom transmission. It also highlights critical drivers, including pathogen plasticity, horizontal gene transfer, and the convergence of environmental and anthropogenic stressors that breach traditional host boundaries. Furthermore, this review focuses on the underlying molecular mechanisms that enable host adaptation and the evolutionary pressures shaping these transitions. To address the complex threats posed by cross-kingdom phytopathogens, a comprehensive One Health approach that bridges plant, animal, and human health strategies is advocated. Integrating molecular surveillance, pathogen genomics, AI-powered predictive modeling, and global biosecurity initiatives is essential to detect, monitor, and mitigate cross-kingdom infections. This interdisciplinary approach not only enhances our preparedness for emerging zoonoses and phytopathogen spillovers but also strengthens ecological resilience and public health security in an era of increasing biological convergence. Full article

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring secondary metabolites produced by specific fungal strains. They can cause adverse effects, posing a serious health threat to both humans and livestock. Focusing on several mycotoxins, this study first aimed at optimizing and validating an ultra-high liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry quantification method. This method was then applied to evaluate the production of the targeted mycotoxins in maize cultivated in the presence of Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., and Alternaria spp. The limits of detection of the analytical method for the different mycotoxins ranged between 0.5 and 200 μg kg⁻¹, while the limits of quantification were between 1 and 400 μg kg⁻¹. The linearities of the calibration curves were evaluated, with calculated R² values above 0.99. The mean recoveries fell within the acceptable range of 74.0–106.0%, the repeatability was not higher than 14.4% RSD, and the highest intra-laboratory reproducibility was 16.2% RSD. The expanded measurement uncertainties ranged between 4.0% and 54.7%. Several fungal strains cultivated on maize grains were demonstrated to produce the targeted toxins, with production at µg kg⁻¹ to mg kg⁻¹ levels for aflatoxins and up to g kg⁻¹ levels for fumonisins, zearalenone, and alternariol. Full article

Grain industries are interested in an integrated approach to in-silo grain quality and safety management using carbon dioxide (CO₂) measurement with temperature and moisture monitoring. Our study investigates if CO₂ production could predict mycotoxin production (T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, its glucoside, and ochratoxin A (OTA)) and identify storage conditions exceeding legislative limits in stored oats for the first time. The influence of water activity (a_w) levels (0.70–0.95 a_w), temperature (15 and 20 °C), and storage duration on (a) Fusarium populations, (b) CO₂ respiration rates (RRs), and (c) mycotoxin concentrations in stored oats was examined. One hundred and twenty samples were analysed for multiple mycotoxins by LC-MS/MS. Substantial differences were found in the RRs of oats at ≥0.90 a_w at both temperatures. A moderate positive correlation between CO₂ and mycotoxins was noticed and mycotoxins exceeded their limits at ≥0.90 a_w (22% moisture content) when RR ≥ 25 µg CO₂ kg⁻¹ h⁻¹. This knowledge forms the basis for developing decision support systems for improving oats’ storage management. Full article