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Keywords = Classical and Hellenistic periods

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25 pages, 16597 KiB  
Article
Earthquake Destruction and Resilience in Ancient Helike, Gulf of Corinth, Greece: A Case Study of Past Human–Environment Relationship
by Dora Katsonopoulou, Ioannis Koukouvelas and Mariza Kormann
Land 2025, 14(7), 1392; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14071392 - 2 Jul 2025
Viewed by 826
Abstract
Geoarchaeological work and excavations of the Helike Project over the last 30 years in the Helike coastal plain, Gulf of Corinth, have yielded abundant evidence on ancient settlements, as well as the surrounding landscape and environmental changes that resulted from geological phenomena and [...] Read more.
Geoarchaeological work and excavations of the Helike Project over the last 30 years in the Helike coastal plain, Gulf of Corinth, have yielded abundant evidence on ancient settlements, as well as the surrounding landscape and environmental changes that resulted from geological phenomena and catastrophic events. The research methods applied by the Helike Project followed a multidisciplinary approach, including combined archaeological excavations and palaeoseismological trenching, geophysical prospection, archaeometric, environmental, and soil micromorphology analyses, and computer-based landscape modelling. A wealth of settlement remains that were unearthed across the plain, ranging in date from the Early Helladic period (3rd millennium BC) to the Late Antiquity (5th century AD), indicates that the ancient inhabitants of the area chose to always resettle in the area by adjusting their ways of living to the geomorphology and natural hazards, prevailing each time. Our results show that disasters in the area increased between the Geometric and Roman times due to severe earthquakes that occurred approximately every 300 years. In particular, archaeological and geological finds recovered from the Late Classical–Hellenistic Helike settlement, which was revived in the western part of the plain shortly after the disastrous 373 BC earthquake, have enriched our knowledge regarding the historical seismicity of the region and past human–environment relationships. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeological Landscape and Settlement II)
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49 pages, 10138 KiB  
Review
Water Supply Systems: Past, Present Challenges, and Future Sustainability Prospects
by Andreas N. Angelakis, Andrea G. Capodaglio, Rohitashw Kumar, Mohammad Valipour, Abdelkader T. Ahmed, Alper Baba, Esra B. Güngör, Laila Mandi, Vasileios A. Tzanakakis, Nektarios N. Kourgialas and Nicholas Dercas
Land 2025, 14(3), 619; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14030619 - 14 Mar 2025
Viewed by 2180
Abstract
At the beginning of human history, surface water, especially from rivers and springs, was the most frequent water supply source. Groundwater was used in arid and semi-arid regions, e.g., eastern Crete (Greece). As the population increased, periodic water shortages occurred, which led to [...] Read more.
At the beginning of human history, surface water, especially from rivers and springs, was the most frequent water supply source. Groundwater was used in arid and semi-arid regions, e.g., eastern Crete (Greece). As the population increased, periodic water shortages occurred, which led to the development of sophisticated hydraulic structures for water transfer and for the collection and storage of rainwater, as seen, for example, in Early Minoan times (ca 3200–2100 BC). Water supply and urban planning had always been essentially related: the urban water supply systems that existed in Greece since the Bronze Age (ca 3200–1100 BC) were notably advanced, well organized, and operable. Water supply systems evolved considerably during the Classical and Hellenistic periods (ca 480–31 BC) and during the Roman period (ca 31 BC–480 AD). Also, early Indian society was an amazing vanguard of technology, planning, and vision, which significantly impacted India’s architectural and cultural heritage, thus laying the foundation for sustainable urban living and water resource management. In ancient Egypt, the main source of freshwater was the Nile River; Nile water was conveyed by open and closed canals to supply water to cities, temples, and fields. Underground stone-built aqueducts supplied Nile water to so-called Nile chambers in temples. The evolution of water supply and urban planning approaches from ancient simple systems to complex modern networks demonstrates the ingenuity and resilience of human communities. Many lessons can be learned from studying traditional water supply systems, which could be re-considered for today’s urban sustainable development. By digging into history, measures for overcoming modern problems can be found. Rainwater harvesting, establishing settlements in proximity of water sources to facilitate access to water, planning, and adequate drainage facilities were the characteristics of ancient civilizations since the ancient Egyptian, Minoan, Mohenjo-Daro, Mesopotamian, and Roman eras, which can still be adopted for sustainability. This paper presents significant lessons on water supply around the world from ancient times to the present. This diachronic survey attempts to provide hydro-technology governance for the present and future. Full article
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23 pages, 10752 KiB  
Article
Clarifying Key Concerns about the Dating of Holy Relics: The Holy Chalice of the Last Supper at the Cathedral of Valencia
by Manuel Zarzo
Heritage 2024, 7(1), 139-161; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7010007 - 30 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4505
Abstract
The Cathedral of Valencia, Spain, has preserved the so-called Holy Chalice of the Last Supper since 1437. It consists of a foot, a gold stem, and an upper cup carved in agate stone. Based on a pious tradition, this cup is supposed to [...] Read more.
The Cathedral of Valencia, Spain, has preserved the so-called Holy Chalice of the Last Supper since 1437. It consists of a foot, a gold stem, and an upper cup carved in agate stone. Based on a pious tradition, this cup is supposed to be the one used by Jesus of Nazareth to institute the Eucharist. According to an archeological study published in 1960, this agate bowl was crafted around the 2nd–1st centuries BC, but people visiting this famous relic often wonder about its authenticity and about the evidence supporting it as a Hellenistic–Roman cup. Attempting to clarify this concern, a photographical characterization of the agate cup is presented and discussed. The main conclusions are the following: (i) The typology of the bowl is common to classical tableware, but the wall thickness, shape of the rim, and foot are typical of gemstone cups from the Hellenistic–Roman period. (ii) This cup would have been extremely valuable, which agrees with the location of the Cenacle in the aristocratic neighborhood of Jerusalem. This case study highlights the importance of further investigating the dating of historical objects as a key issue to support their authenticity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Heritage, Tourism and Communication: Theory and Practice)
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17 pages, 2677 KiB  
Review
Evolution of Hydro-Technologies and Relevant Associations Focusing on Hellenic World
by Andreas N. Angelakis, Jure Margeta, Miquel Salgot and Xiao-Yun Zheng
Water 2023, 15(9), 1721; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15091721 - 28 Apr 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3215
Abstract
Hydro-technologies, and especially the need for developing drinking water treatments, have been known since the ancient times. Water supply treatment devices were developed even during prehistoric times but were especially improved during the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Nevertheless, after several centuries, particularly during [...] Read more.
Hydro-technologies, and especially the need for developing drinking water treatments, have been known since the ancient times. Water supply treatment devices were developed even during prehistoric times but were especially improved during the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Nevertheless, after several centuries, particularly during the last two, intensive and effective efforts have been made all over the world to obtain sufficient amounts of water with the necessary quality to improve the quality of life and health of humankind. As a result, life expectancy has globally increased at unprecedented rates, especially in the developed world. This paper represents an effort to study the relationship between water history, the development of water-related technologies, and the health and quality of ecosystems, especially those affecting human beings. Thus, it should be pointed out that: The history of water is equivalent to the history of the world, and the history of water quality is equivalent to the history of quality of life (Andreas N. Angelakis). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Water Supply, Sanitation and Wastewater Systems)
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22 pages, 3575 KiB  
Review
Water Quality Focusing on the Hellenic World: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future
by Andreas N. Angelakis, Nicholas Dercas and Vasileios A. Tzanakakis
Water 2022, 14(12), 1887; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14121887 - 11 Jun 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6582
Abstract
Water quality is a fundamental issue for the survival of a city, especially on dry land. In ancient times, water availability determined the location and size of villages and cities. Water supply and treatment methods were developed and perfected along with the evolution [...] Read more.
Water quality is a fundamental issue for the survival of a city, especially on dry land. In ancient times, water availability determined the location and size of villages and cities. Water supply and treatment methods were developed and perfected along with the evolution of urbanization. In Europe, after the fall of the Roman Empire, water supply and sewage systems went through fundamental changes. However, in medieval times, the lack of proper sanitation and low water quality increased the spreading and effects of epidemics. The importance of potable water quality was established during modern times. In Greece, the significance of water filtration and disinfection was not understood until the beginning of the 20th century. Moreover, the beneficial effects of water quality and sanitation on human health and especially on life expectancy are considered. In Greece and other countries, a dramatic increase in life expectancy mainly after the 2nd World War is probably due to the improvement of potable water quality and hygiene conditions. However, since the mid-20th century, new water quality issues have emerged, such as eutrophication, the improvement of water treatment technologies, as well as chemical and microbiological water pollution problems. This study, in addition to the historical evolution of water quality, highlights and discusses the current issues and challenges with regard to the management and protection of water quality, including global changes in population and urbanization, lack of infrastructure, use of nonconventional water resources, spreading of emerging pollutants and contaminants (e.g., antibiotics and microplastics), and climatic variability impacts. Against these, a review of the main proposed strategies and measures is presented and discussed to protect water quality and maintain water supplies for the future. Understanding the practices and solutions of the past provides a lens with which to view the present and future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Scarcity: From Ancient to Modern Times and the Future)
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24 pages, 1496 KiB  
Article
Insights on Eastern Hellenistic Historical and Archaeological Material Culture of the Oikoumene: Globalisation and Local Socio-Cultural Identities
by Naif Adel Haddad
Heritage 2021, 4(4), 3307-3330; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040184 - 12 Oct 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6771
Abstract
This paper focuses on the Hellenistic Middle East, especially the age of Ptolemaic Alexandrian and Syrian Seleucid influence. It investigates and clarifies some of the Hellenistic-age historical and archaeological material culture within the Hellenisation and globalisation conceptions. Furthermore, it suggests that by reviewing [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on the Hellenistic Middle East, especially the age of Ptolemaic Alexandrian and Syrian Seleucid influence. It investigates and clarifies some of the Hellenistic-age historical and archaeological material culture within the Hellenisation and globalisation conceptions. Furthermore, it suggests that by reviewing the context of the local socio-cultural identities in the Hellenistic Oikoumene, mainly based on the lingua franca about local identity and how the local identity was expressed on coinage during Hellenistic times, many related insights issues can be revealed. In addition, it also attempts to discuss and reveal aspects of the cultural sharing achievements in Hellenistic art, architecture, and urban built environment planning. Finally, how did Eastern Hellenistic cities manage to benefit from the process of Hellenistic globalisation and localisation/globalisation while minimising identity risks? The focus is on the transnational socio-cultural and economic area of Ptolemaic Alexandria, the centre of the post-Classical Greek world, and the Syrian Seleucid influence. As an investment, mass migration and the transfer of goods, culture, and ideas increasingly transformed these Middle Eastern cities and shaped their translocal culture conception, local socio-cultural identities, cultural sharing, art and architecture edifice forms, and spatial patterns in the Hellenistic period. One of the main contributions and significance of this study is to continue the dialogue of how non-Greek influence in Hellenistic times impacted an area that has been traditionally seen as unaffected or minimally affected by years under foreign rule. This also sheds new light on some Greco-Macedonian topics not sufficiently debated in the Oikoumene discussion dialogue. These two aspects would furthermore contribute to better understanding and accepting the neglected role of the contribution of non-Greek culture to Greek achievements, as well as how the local non-Greek customs of the indigenous peoples of the Ptolemy and Seleucid kingdoms would affect how they assimilated Greco-Macedonian practices, and how the vision of Alexander the Great and Hellenisation worked in the different territories of these two kingdoms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers)
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17 pages, 517 KiB  
Article
Money Decentralization under Direct Democracy Procedures. The Case of Classical Athens
by Emmanouil-Marios L. Economou, Nicholas C. Kyriazis and Nikolaos A. Kyriazis
J. Risk Financial Manag. 2021, 14(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14010030 - 11 Jan 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4648
Abstract
By analyzing the case of Athens during the Classical period (508-323 BCE) the main thesis of this paper is that under direct democracy procedures and the related institutional setup, a monetary system without a Central Bank may function relatively well. We focus on [...] Read more.
By analyzing the case of Athens during the Classical period (508-323 BCE) the main thesis of this paper is that under direct democracy procedures and the related institutional setup, a monetary system without a Central Bank may function relatively well. We focus on the following issues: (i) Τhe procedures of currency issuing in the Athenian city-state, (ii) why the Athenian drachma become the leading international currency in the Mediterranean world (iii) how and towards which targets monetary policy without a Central Bank was possible (iv) defining the targets of monetary policy and the mechanisms for its implementation (v) the role of money in the economy (vi) the issue of deficit spending (vii) the reasons of the replacement of the Athenian drachma as a leading currency by others from the Hellenistic period onwards (viii) the correlation of our findings regarding the decentralized character of monetary policy in Classical Athens to today’s realities, such as the issue of cryptocurrencies. Our analysis shows that monetary policy without a Central Bank was possible, with its foremost aim being the stability of the currency (mainly, silver coins) in order to enhance trust in it and so, make it an international currency which could outcompete other currencies. Since there was no Central Bank like today, monetary policy decisions were taken by the popular assembly of citizens in combination with the market forces themselves. Full article
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17 pages, 15914 KiB  
Article
History of Hygiene Focusing on the Crucial Role of Water in the Hellenic Asclepieia (i.e., Ancient Hospitals)
by Andreas N. Angelakis, Georgios P. Antoniou, Christos Yapijakis and George Tchobanoglous
Water 2020, 12(3), 754; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030754 - 9 Mar 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9434
Abstract
Prehistoric Hellenic civilizations like many other civilizations believed in gods and thought they had influence on the everyday life of the people. During the Bronze Ages the explanations of illness and health problems were based on mythological, divine, or religious (i.e., theocratic) reasoning [...] Read more.
Prehistoric Hellenic civilizations like many other civilizations believed in gods and thought they had influence on the everyday life of the people. During the Bronze Ages the explanations of illness and health problems were based on mythological, divine, or religious (i.e., theocratic) reasoning or explanations. However, during the Classical and the Hellenistic periods, the Greeks clearly differentiated their thinking from all other civilizations by inventing philosophy and empirical science. Drains/sewers, baths and toilets and other sanitary installations reflect the high cultural and technological level of the period; they are also associated with hygienic and medical studies and practical applications. At that time, medicine was mainly based on clinical observations and scientific investigations. Prior to that time, in the Bronze Age, medicine was entirely confined to religious rituals and beliefs. In ancient Greece, medicine was practiced in Asclepieia (or Asklepieia), which were healing sanctuaries which also functioned as medical schools and hospitals. In the Classical Greece period, more than 400 Asclepieia were operating offering their medical services. The basic elements of each Asclepieia included a clean source of water and related infrastructure. At that time Hippocrates, the father of medicine, and his successors wrote a large number of medical texts in which the crucial role of water and sanitation is documented. They also identified numerous medical terms, many of which remain in use today. The Hippocratic treatises also contributed to the scientific evolution which occurred in later centuries, because they sought to explain the causes of observed natural phenomena in a deterministic way rather than on theocratic explanations in use at the time. In this paper, the evolution of hygiene, focusing on water use in ancient Greece is examined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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19 pages, 8897 KiB  
Article
Evolution of Cretan Aqueducts and Their Potential for Hydroelectric Exploitation
by Triantafyllia G. Nikolaou, Ioannis Christodoulakos, Panagiotis G. Piperidis and Andreas N. Angelakis
Water 2017, 9(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/w9010031 - 7 Jan 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8369
Abstract
In this article, several archaeological, historical and other aspects of aqueducts in Crete, Greece, since the prehistoric times until today, are reviewed and presented. In Crete, since the Minoan era, various water management techniques that are found in modern water technologies were developed [...] Read more.
In this article, several archaeological, historical and other aspects of aqueducts in Crete, Greece, since the prehistoric times until today, are reviewed and presented. In Crete, since the Minoan era, various water management techniques that are found in modern water technologies were developed and applied. One of the most significant features of the Minoan civilization was the architecture of water supply systems in the palaces and other settlements. These technologies were continued and improved mainly during the Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods and at the same time spread to other towns in the mainland and islands. The aqueduct technologies developed during the Classical and Hellenistic periods were further developed by Romans, mainly by enlarging their application scale (e.g., water bridges). Several paradigms of Cretan aqueducts are considered by which the significance of those technologies for water supply in areas with limited water resources is justified. A brief presentation and discussion of climatic conditions, the karst hydrogeology and the water resources management in Crete is also included. The article also describes the present water management profile of the island, in terms of the water plants, water supply–irrigation networks, and water renewable energy exploitation of dams and water pipelines. Full article
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30 pages, 3581 KiB  
Review
Evolution of Water Lifting Devices (Pumps) over the Centuries Worldwide
by Stavros I. Yannopoulos, Gerasimos Lyberatos, Nicolaos Theodossiou, Wang Li, Mohammad Valipour, Aldo Tamburrino and Andreas N. Angelakis
Water 2015, 7(9), 5031-5060; https://doi.org/10.3390/w7095031 - 17 Sep 2015
Cited by 309 | Viewed by 130639
Abstract
The evolution of the major achievements in water lifting devices with emphasis on the major technologies over the centuries is presented and discussed. Valuable insights into ancient water lifting technologies with their apparent characteristics of durability, adaptability, and sustainability are provided. A comparison [...] Read more.
The evolution of the major achievements in water lifting devices with emphasis on the major technologies over the centuries is presented and discussed. Valuable insights into ancient water lifting technologies with their apparent characteristics of durability, adaptability, and sustainability are provided. A comparison of the relevant technological developments in several early civilizations is carried out. These technologies are the underpinning of modern achievements in water engineering. They represent the best paradigm of probing the past and facing the future. A timeline of the historical development of water pumps worldwide through the last 5500 years of the history of mankind is presented. A chronological order is followed with emphasis on the major civilizations. Full article
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25 pages, 4595 KiB  
Review
History of Water Cisterns: Legacies and Lessons
by Larry Mays, George P. Antoniou and Andreas N. Angelakis
Water 2013, 5(4), 1916-1940; https://doi.org/10.3390/w5041916 - 21 Nov 2013
Cited by 81 | Viewed by 41223
Abstract
The use of water cisterns has been traced back to the Neolithic Age; this paper thus presents a brief historical development of water cisterns worldwide over the last 5500 years. This paper is not an exhaustive presentation of all that is known today [...] Read more.
The use of water cisterns has been traced back to the Neolithic Age; this paper thus presents a brief historical development of water cisterns worldwide over the last 5500 years. This paper is not an exhaustive presentation of all that is known today about water cisterns, but rather provides some characteristic examples of cistern technology in a chronological manner extending from prehistoric times to the present. The examples of water cistern technologies and management practices given in this paper may have some importance for water resource sustainability for the present and future. Cisterns have been used to store both rainfall runoff water and aqueduct water originating in springs and streams for the purpose of meeting water needs through seasonal variations. Cisterns have ranged in construction from simple clay pots to large underground structures. Full article
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