Search Results (66)

Between 1008 and 1016, for several times Emperor Zhenzong (968–1022, r. 997–1022) distributed Zhicao (Ganoderma Lucidum), acquired during the Fengshan 封禪 rituals. These grand-scale activities from central to local levels were completely different from the previous management of auspicious omens and calamities. Zhicao, serving as an auspicious symbol in the Confucian system of auspicious omens and calamities, underwent an elevation in status through its integration with the concept of longevity in Daoism. It began to play important roles in the political propaganda of Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1276) dynasties. On the one hand, the distribution was influenced by the political initiatives of Emperor Gaozong (628–683, r. 649–683) after his Fengshan ceremony, with the reason lying in the subtle influence of the Buddhist concept of sacred relics. By integrating the political propaganda of Three Teachings, Emperor Zhenzong reinforced the regime’s legitimacy and enhanced the personal authority of the monarch. Full article

Scholarship in Buddhist Studies, particularly among philologists and philosophers, often overlooks cosmology, karma, and rebirth. This neglect is a legacy of a deep and long-standing anti-metaphysical spirit that pervades the empirical and philosophical frameworks employed in the discipline. This study engages in a philological close reading of four manuscripts of an unedited and untranslated Pali commentary on the Cha-gati-dīpanī “Light on the Six Realms”, a work on karma and rebirth composed possibly in Pagan, Myanmar, in the early second millennium. This text is particularly significant as one of the oldest Pali works from the region, drawing on now-lost Sanskrit (or possibly Prakrit) sources and offering unique insights into broader Buddhist debates, such as the ontological status of hell guardians. I examine the text’s depiction of the hell and animal realms and reassess some of our scholarly paradigms that often frame the kind of ideas the commentary presents as irrational, figurative, or “folk”. Ultimately, this study calls for greater attention to such works and their perspectival horizons to enrich our understanding of the intellectual life of medieval Buddhism beyond the constraints of modern empirical and philosophical assumptions. Full article

The Huayan Grotto in Anyue County is one of the most typical caves of the grottoes of Sichuan 四川 and Chongqing 重慶. Being well known for its grand scale and the beautiful style of its sculptures, the cave was designed and carved by the Liu-Zhao sect 柳趙教派 in eastern Sichuan during the Southern Song Dynasty. The Liu-Zhao sect is a local religious group that relies on grottoes and statues to state concepts, propagate ideas, and spread doctrines. The sect is good at integrating a variety of Buddhist thoughts to form its own unique theoretical and practical system. The large-scale statue-making activities under the auspices of the Liu-Zhao sect 柳趙教派 are a classic example of the localization of Buddhism in Southwest China. The ideological system of the Liu-Zhao sect is centered on Huayan, and Huayan Grotto is the very concentration of its special philosophy. This paper considers that the cave constitutes a holy place, with a theme of thoughts of Huayan, which was built based on important doctrines of two masters. Through the combination and arrangement of diversified images, the cave is so far the most complex, complete, and systematic visualized representation of the Huayan’s theory and practice. Inside the cave are carved full-length portraits of Li Tongxuan 李通玄, the Elder of Huayan, and Guifeng Zongmi 圭峰宗密, the fifth patriarch of the Huayan sect. There are also statues and inscriptions that illustrate Li’s thoughts, such as the Ten Assemblies in Ten Locations 十處十會and the Sudhana’s Pilgrimage 善財遍參based on Li’s exegetical writings on the Avataṃsaka Sūtra; the Three Saints of the Huayan School (Huayan sansheng 華嚴三聖) carved on the basis of Li’s pioneering idea about the trinity of three saints; and the mind-only verse 惟心偈, emphasizing mind as the foundation of Avataṃsaka practice. Zongmi’s Avataṃsaka thoughts were mainly expounded through a series of commentaries on the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment 大方廣圓覺修多羅了義經, to which the impressive Twelve Bodhisattvas of Perfect Enlightenment are directly related. In addition to the theoretical system, the cave offers two means for Avataṃsaka practice. Highly qualified Avataṃsaka practitioners practice by viewing the Trinity of Three Saints and the Buddha’s Light, and then they go through five phases of fruition to attain Buddhahood, which is the Avataṃsaka practice dominated by Li Tongxuan’s thoughts. Less qualified practitioners practice through repentance liturgies and sitting in meditation at the Ritual Site of Perfect Enlightenment, which is the practice of Perfect Enlightenment advocated by Zongmi 宗密. Full article

The Western Regions during the Han and Tang Dynasties served as a significant cultural intersection along the Silk Road, with stupas acting as core architectural forms of Buddhist dissemination, embodying religious, cultural, and artistic evolution. This study is a research article based on typological analysis, integrating historical documents and archaeological site data to explore the stylistic evolution of stupa architecture in the Western Regions during the Han and Tang Dynasties, revealing the changes in religious beliefs and the process of cultural adaptation and integration of Buddhism in a multicultural context. The study demonstrates that the distribution of stupas shifted from being concentrated in areas such as Shanshan and Shule during the Han Dynasty to expanding across a wider region during the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, eventually forming a Gaochang-centered pattern in the Tang Dynasty. Architectural styles evolved from the simplicity of domed stupas to diversification and then to standardization. The number of niches increased from none to many before decreasing again, while the proportions of the stupa bases gradually increased. This evolution highlights the transition of stupa styles from a singular form to diversification, eventually achieving standardization in the Tang Dynasty. This transformation not only reflects the optimization of the temple layout, gradually shifting from a stupa-centered to a Buddha hall-centered structure, but also illustrates the evolution of stupas from symbols of the Buddha’s tomb to carriers for Buddha statues and ultimately to representations of the Mount Sumeru cosmological concept. This transition also mirrors the shift in Buddhist beliefs, evolving from Theravāda to Mahāyāna Buddhism and then returning to Theravāda practices. This not only facilitated the regionalization of stupa forms and the integration of artistic styles but also provided a significant medium for cultural exchange between China and the West. Full article

The question, what was a monastic? is a complex issue, whether in the context of China, Korea or even in the homeland of Buddhism, India. Nonetheless, this is especially so in the case of Joseon Korea due to the dramatic historical changes that took place with the Imjin War. This obviously brought about shifts not only in the social status but also in the societal role of the monastics. The most substantive factors in the late-Joseon period (1600–1910) was the loss of state patronage and no longer being under the auspices of the state. Simply put, the discussed materials in this paper evince diverse images and roles of monks that range from being state officials, laborers, soldier-monks, and Seon meditators, to thieving bandits. A single descriptor would be unable to capture the diverse identities of the late-Joseon monks. Moreover, the monastics also presented themselves as highly organized with organizational aims, no different from an organization existing inescapably in everyday socio-economic and political conditions. The shared goal of the Buddhist community, by way of presenting certain images, was to regain social recognition and legitimation, to a position of power and privilege perhaps similar to what it once had during the Goryeo period (918–1392). Full article

The illustrated books of Kōriki Enkōan (1756–1831), a samurai and amateur illustrator from Owari domain, offer a unique window into the culture of spectacle and display that flourished in late Edo-period Japan. Included in his corpus are several manuscripts that document kaichō, public exhibitions of sacred icons and temple treasures hosted by Buddhist temples and other venues. While most studies of kaichō emphasize their popularity in the capital of Edo, this article focuses on Enkōan’s illustrated manuscript of an exhibition of the famous Seiryōji Shaka that was held in Nagoya in 1819. Situating the event and its visual documentation within the statue’s legendary history as a traveling icon, the study explores how Enkōan’s careful manipulation of text and image created an immersive reading experience that allowed its readers a kind of virtual access to the exhibition. Considering the author’s position within the contemporary social hierarchy, it also addresses the role that samurai values may have played in shaping the representation of kaichō and illuminates its intersections with urban spectacle and emerging exhibition practices in early modern Japan. Full article

Zen/Chan Buddhism, as a profound spiritual tradition, has witnessed the emergence and development of a unique phenomenon known as “老婆禪 Granny Chan”, which is deeply intertwined with the spiritual pursuits of Buddhist women throughout history. This proposed research aims to expound and interrogate the hidden treasures of Zen wisdom amassed by these remarkable women, thereby shedding new light on the often-overlooked contributions within the Zen domain. To begin with, by scouring ancient Zen texts, anecdotes, and historical records, we will trace the roots and evolutionary path of “Granny Chan”. These sources are replete with accounts of nameless “grannies” engaging in profound dialogs and encounters with Zen masters. Their sharp insights and spontaneous responses during dharma exchanges, as exemplified in classic koans like “婆子點心 The Granny’s Dimsum” and “婆子燒庵 The Granny Burning the Hermitage”, reveal a depth of understanding that belies their marginalized status in traditional religious narratives. Subsequently, this study will focus on dissecting the distinct ways in which their Zen wisdom was manifested within the cultural context of Zen. Their approach, characterized by simplicity, directness, and a deep connection to life’s realities, not only added a refreshing dimension to Zen teachings but also subtly challenged the male-dominated paradigm prevalent in the religious fields. By highlighting these expressions, we can appreciate how Buddhist women’s insights became an integral part of Zen’s cultural fabric. In the contemporary context, this research holds multiple implications. It serves as a corrective to the historical neglect of Buddhist women’s spiritual achievements, providing a source of inspiration and empowerment for modern female practitioners. Moreover, it prompts a rethinking of gender equality within religious traditions, advocating for a more inclusive and equitable recognition of women’s roles in the Zen community and beyond. Overall, through the exploration of “Granny Chan”, we anticipate contributing to a better understanding of Zen Buddhism’s historical, cultural, and spiritual dimensions, bridging the gender gap and enriching the ongoing discourse on religious wisdom. Full article

This research, situated in the geographical and historical context of the Tangut and East Java, uncovers a significant aspect of the evolution of Buddhist art styles. A thangka of the goddess Vajravārāhī found in Khara Khoto, dated to the late 12th century, shows the bodhisattva decorated with a pearl-chain girdle and upper-arm bands. This form of pearl-chain jewellery, which appears on Vajravārāhī and other Sino-Tibetan-style bodhisattvas, also appears on three stone statues of the goddess Prajñāpāramitā in East Java, all of which depict a near identical use of this pearl-chain ornamentation, as well as on a statue of Prajñāpāramitā at the Muara Jambi Buddhist site in Sumatra. Maritime trade between the regions of China and Java was extensive. The commonality of such motifs in China and Java may highlight a convergence of cultural forces and perhaps shared styles originating from the maritime realm and traded via maritime routes; however, a direct or indirect influence of Sino-Tibetan styles on thangka paintings featuring this depiction of the jewellery perhaps occurred following dynamics of north–south exchange, highlighting the interrelated links along maritime and overland routes through the Pāla Buddhist kingdom in eastern India. Thus, I propose that the connection between the Vajravārāhī and other Tibetan thangka paintings was inspired by Northeast Indian influence from the Hexi corridor, eventually reaching East Java. Full article

The article addresses one of the central issues of Buddhist thought, the status of selfhood and individuality, as they are discussed in the work of the Japanese Zen thinker Dōgen (1200–1253). It discusses critically and rejects the widespread assumption that Dōgen postulates two levels of selfhood, that of the deluded individual and a transcendent True Self to the attainment of which one should aspire. On the basis of rigorous methodological principles, formulated at the outset, the article analyzes in detail the terminology Dōgen uses for selfhood and individuality and provides a comprehensive, coherent interpretational framework for the reading of a number of key passages that have usually been presented in support of the True Self theory. Full article

This article re-examines the history of the Mongol Empire’s rule over Tibet, analyzing the complex institutional and religious relationships between the Mongol Empire and Tibet from an innovative perspective. We find that, unlike its military conquests in other parts of the world, the Mongol Empire actually formed a kind of federation with Tibet based on Buddhism. The Mongol Empire embraced Tibetan Buddhism as its state religion and venerated the head of the Sakya school as a spiritual guide. Concurrently, the establishment of the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs in the Mongol capital served as a nominal governing body over Tibet, while in reality, it ensured a significant degree of autonomy for the region. Furthermore, the leaders of the Mongol Empire felt endowed with the legitimacy to conquer the world after being blessed by Tibetan Buddhism as Mahakala, the dark incarnation of Avalokiteshvara. In addition, the article also provides a detailed account of the prosperity of Buddhism within the Mongol Empire, in terms of its economic, artistic, and philosophical aspects. The discovery of this evidence is of great significance, since it not only supports reinterpretation of the historical evolution of the Mongol Empire and Tibet, but also allows us to observe the status of Tibetan Buddhism in the Mongol Empire from a new perspective, and to explore the unexpected institutional innovations of the federation reflected in the Mongol-Tibetan relationship. Full article

Situated in the mountainous and gorge-ridden region at the junction of the Tibet Autonomous Region, Sichuan Province, and Yunnan Province, the Tibetan–Yi Corridor is home to the Kham Tibetan area, one of China’s three traditional Tibetan areas. Tibetan Buddhism and the establishment of its temples in this region have evolved and propagated from nothing to a diverse landscape since the 8th century. Existing studies, however, have paid little attention to the intricate interplay between the formation of this sacred religious landscape and the specific geographic and sociocultural contexts in which it is situated. By taking temple architecture as a research vehicle, this study begins by extracting spatial data from historical GIS network data resources and 276 local gazetteers of 45 counties in the Tibetan–Yi Corridor. Secondly, it digitalizes and quantifies the geographic information, construction dates, sectarian affiliations, and sizes of 1479 Tibetan Buddhist temples in the region, establishing a database covering four historical periods. Finally, it employs GIS technology to visualize the spatial distribution of these temples, revealing their spatial and temporal patterns and evolution. From a religious geographical perspective, this study reconstructs the historical trajectories and diffusion patterns of the Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, Gelug, Jonang, and Bon sects in the Tibetan–Yi Corridor, revealing the complex interplay, succession, and ebb and flow of these sects over time. The research results show that the historical spread and development of Tibetan Buddhism in the Tibetan–Yi Corridor were influenced by a complex interplay of geographical, social, political, and economic factors, including the unique topography of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and Hengduan Mountains, the complex interplay of agriculture and pastoralism, the historical influence of dynastic changes and central government policies on border regions, and ancient pilgrimage and trade routes. At the same time, as a multi-ethnic region inhabited by over 20 minorities, including Tibetans, Yi, Qiang, Naxi, and Nu, the Tibetan–Yi Corridor has a cultural identity dominated by religion, which has become an important factor in maintaining multi-ethnic symbiosis throughout its history, highlighting the unique historical status and role of the Tibetan–Yi Corridor in the entire Tibetan Buddhist cultural circle. Full article

Contemplation is a unique way of seeing that enables us to perceive the truth of the invisible beyond what is visible. Through contemplation, one can become deeply connected with, and possibly even identify with, what they have observed. This study analyzes the spatial arrangement of “A Room of Quiet Contemplation” at the National Museum of Korea and explores its interaction with visitors. Although the room prominently features two Buddhist pensive bodhisattva statues, giving it a Buddhist appearance, it must meet certain necessary conditions due to its location in a national museum. Respect for religious diversity and the neutralization of religious bias are crucial. We examine how the statues are de-contextualized from their original temporal and local contexts, allowing them to function as universal (non-religious) signs in the museum. Furthermore, the room must be accessible to foreign visitors from various cultural and religious backgrounds. Thus, this research investigates the universality and singularity of the tradition of contemplation. Additionally, we explore how the experience of contemplation can be enhanced through various forms of the spatial expansion of “A Room of Quiet Contemplation”. Full article

The value of the Buddhist cave lies not only in the Buddha statues but also in the surface painting. Hyperspectral imaging technology, as an emerging and effective method for component identification, offers a non-contact and non-destructive approach to the preservation and restoration of oil paintings. This study employed hyperspectral cameras to capture common pigments on the surfaces of Buddhist caves. Then, the results were processed and used as a database to identify the paintings. Additionally, a series of experiments were conducted to examine the impact of binder, substrate types, and pigment sizes on the reflectance spectrum of the paints. The Spectral Angle Matching (SAM) algorithm was then used to analyze the Yuanjue Cave and Qiqushan Stone Carvings of the Tang Dynasty in China. The findings revealed that the position of absorption peaks in the reflectance spectra is not significantly influenced by the substrate but is affected by the binder. Moreover, the absorption depth varies regularly with particle size. Furthermore, the spectral matching results demonstrate that components can be accurately identified even for similar colors. Based on the pigment distribution, the study also inferred specific details of ancient paintings, including the painting steps and hidden information in the manuscript layout. These findings hold significant implications for the restoration of representative surface paintings of the Tang Dynasty Buddhist cave, providing a reference for the selection of restoration materials and methods. Full article

This paper argues that the historical process of the Sinicization of Buddhism and the evolution of the value of female roles in Buddhist beliefs have advanced hand in hand; the more Buddhism becomes Sinicized, the higher the status of women in Buddhist beliefs becomes. To some extent, the Sinicization of Buddhism can be considered a feminization process. Female roles in Buddhist beliefs are often passive objects and marginal positions that are uncertain and continuously presupposed by others. This article starts from a cultural, philosophical perspective, aiming to examine the internal logic of the evolution of female roles in Buddhist beliefs. In terms of individual experience, the highlighting of the identity as a “subject” of sexual desire makes women a necessary but insufficient prerequisite “option” for guiding male sexual desire—in Indian Buddhist beliefs, women’s enlightenment involves both reflecting on sexual desire itself and negating their own gender disadvantage. As Buddhism spread worldwide, Western Buddhist traditions laid the foundation of Buddhist belief on “sacred images”, while various local cultural genes infiltrated the imagination of “Western Buddhist nations”. The Buddha’s gender orientation achieved a transcendence of both male and female or a bilateral blend, leaning more towards female. Ultimately, from the perspective of family identity, in a Chinese Buddhist belief world organized by the patriarchal system, the unique role of women in the family—“mother”—pushes Buddhist belief back to the scene of the emotional world. Full article

Weituo 韦驮 is one of the most frequently represented protective deities in Chinese Buddhist temples. The statue of Weituo is enshrined virtually in every standard Buddhist temple in China today, and at a unique location—in the entrance hall for the four Heavenly Kings and facing inward. Why is the Weituo statue placed at this place and looking inward? The Chinese Weituo can be traced back to the Hindu god Skanda. However, his iconography and functions in China were completely reshaped by master Daoxuan’s 道宣 (596–667) account of this deity. Actually, Weituo is just one of the many Buddhist protective deities for general protection and prosperity. In China, as I demonstrate in this study, Weituo has been known as the most diligent Dharma-protector and is associated in particular with the saṅgha, as a patron guardian and inspector of monks and nuns. Thus, Weituo’s images are shrined in Buddhist temples. The locations of these images reflect the importance of Weituo and his special role in Chinese Buddhism. In the past, there have been a few studies, but they mainly focus on his origin. The functions of Weituo and the worship of Weituo in the Chinese saṅgha have not been well examined. Going beyond his identities, iconography, and style, this study aims to contextualize Weituo images in temple space and religious practice. Full article