Association between Neighborhood Food Access, Household Income, and Purchase of Snacks and Beverages in the United States
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (1)
- Compared with households who lived in neighborhoods with few convenience stores, households in neighborhoods with many convenience stores had higher expenditures for snacks and beverages, regardless of whether the households were below or above the poverty threshold.
- (2)
- Compared with households who lived in neighborhoods with few supermarkets, households in neighborhoods with more supermarkets had higher expenditures for snacks and beverages, regardless of whether the households were below or above the poverty threshold.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sample
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Purchases of Snacks and Beverages
2.2.2. Neighborhood Food Availability
2.2.3. Covariates
2.3. Statistical Analyses
2.4. Sensitivity Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Regression Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | All (n = 48,624) | Poor Households a (n = 2292) | Non-Poor Households a (n = 46,332) |
---|---|---|---|
Education ****, % | |||
≤High school or below | 23.9 | 38.0 | 23.2 |
>High school | 66.1 | 51.2 | 66.9 |
No female head | 10.0 | 10.8 | 9.9 |
Race ****, % | |||
White | 82.1 | 78.6 | 82.3 |
Black | 10.2 | 12.8 | 10.1 |
Asian | 3.1 | 1.8 | 3.2 |
Other | 4.6 | 6.9 | 4.5 |
Household size ****, % | |||
Single member | 26.2 | 38.8 | 25.5 |
Two members | 41.4 | 24.1 | 42.3 |
Three members | 14.3 | 12.8 | 14.4 |
Four + members | 18.1 | 24.3 | 17.8 |
Marital status ****, % | |||
Married | 60.1 | 35.7 | 61.3 |
Widowed | 7.9 | 12.9 | 7.6 |
Divorced/separated | 15.7 | 27.0 | 15.1 |
Single | 16.4 | 24.4 | 16.0 |
Children ****, % | |||
Yes | 22.1 | 30.7 | 21.6 |
Number of workers, % | |||
0 | 86.8 | 86.7 | 86.8 |
1 | 10.6 | 10.0 | 10.6 |
2+ | 3.4 | 3.3 | 3.6 |
Characteristics | All (n = 48,624) | Poor Households a (n = 2292) | Non-Poor Households a (n = 46,332) |
---|---|---|---|
Annual food expenditure, USD, median (IQR) | |||
Snacks **** | 770.5 (1193.2) | 598.9 (1075.9) | 778.2 (1199.0) |
Beverages **** | 856.5 (1429.1) | 623.1 (1205.1) | 868.3 (1436.7) |
Number of neighborhood convenience stores ***, count, median (IQR) | 3.0 (6.0) | 3.0 (7.0) | 3.0 (6.0) |
Number of neighborhood supermarkets **, % | |||
0 | 72.6 | 71.5 | 72.7 |
1 | 14.6 | 13.8 | 14.6 |
2+ | 12.8 | 14.7 | 12.7 |
Regional destination accessibility, 10,000 employees in 45-min automobile travel time **, median (IQR) | 6.7 (11.2) | 5.4 (10.8) | 6.7 (11.3) |
Availability of neighborhood destinations **, count, median (IQR) | 117.0 (309.0) | 120.0 (328.0) | 117.0 (307.0) |
Neighborhood destination diversity **, entropy, mean (SD) | 4.4 (2.4) | 4.3 (2.5) | 4.4 (2.4) |
Neighborhood street connectivity **, intersections per square km, median (IQR) | 13.1 (19.8) | 13.5 (22.3) | 13.1 (19.6) |
Percent of zero-car households ****, median (IQR) | 2.8 (7.6) | 3.5 (9.2) | 2.8 (7.4) |
Percent of population below poverty level ****, median (IQR) | 5.8 (8.9) | 7.9 (12.1) | 5.7 (8.7) |
Urbanicity **, % | |||
Urbanized area | 60.2 | 57.9 | 60.3 |
Urban cluster | 4.1 | 4.7 | 4.0 |
Non-urban | 35.7 | 37.5 | 35.6 |
Poor Households (n = 1913 a) | Non-Poor Households (n = 40,854 a) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | p | B | SE | p | |
Availability of Convenience Stores, Count | −0.008 | 0.004 | 0.033 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.039 |
Availability of Supermarkets, Count | ||||||
0 (Ref.) | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
1 | 0.017 | 0.059 | 0.773 | −0.027 | 0.012 | 0.025 |
2+ | −0.001 | 0.073 | 0.994 | −0.026 | 0.016 | 0.120 |
Poor Households (n = 1944 a) | Non-Poor Households (n = 41,063 a) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | p | B | SE | p | |
Availability of Convenience Stores, Count | 0.007 | 0.004 | 0.101 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.821 |
Availability of Supermarkets, Count | ||||||
0 (Ref.) | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
1 | −0.047 | 0.068 | 0.491 | 0.018 | 0.014 | 0.187 |
2+ | −0.005 | 0.086 | 0.951 | 0.008 | 0.018 | 0.654 |
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Peng, K.; Kaza, N. Association between Neighborhood Food Access, Household Income, and Purchase of Snacks and Beverages in the United States. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7517. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207517
Peng K, Kaza N. Association between Neighborhood Food Access, Household Income, and Purchase of Snacks and Beverages in the United States. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(20):7517. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207517
Chicago/Turabian StylePeng, Ke, and Nikhil Kaza. 2020. "Association between Neighborhood Food Access, Household Income, and Purchase of Snacks and Beverages in the United States" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 20: 7517. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207517