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Viruses
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Wastewater-Based Epidemiology and Viral Surveillance
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Wastewater-Based Epidemiology and Viral Surveillance

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Human Virology and Viral Diseases".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2026 | Viewed by 3460

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Elisabetta Carraro

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Science of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Turin, 10124 Torino, TO, Italy
Interests: waterborne pathogens; microbiological water quality; environmental microbiology analytical methods; water microbiological indicator of contamination; wastewater-based epidemiology; treated wastewater microbiological quality; airborne PM genotoxic effect
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Cristina Pignata

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Public Health and Pediatrics, University of Torino, Via Santena 5bis, 10126 Torino, Italy
Interests: environmental health; drinking water; wastewater; microbiological contamination; pathogens; ecotoxicology; mutagenicity; non thermal plasma treatment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Silvia Bonetta

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, 10124 Torino, TO, Italy
Interests: emerging pathogens; environment; antibiotic resistance; molecular methods; water; food
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Wastewater‐based epidemiology (WBE) is a method that monitors the presence of viral pathogens in community sewage systems, using wastewater as a pooled sample that reflects virus shedding from the population. WBE has emerged as a transformative approach for monitoring known and emerging viral pathogens at the population level. By analysing community sewage, WBE provides a cost-effective and non-invasive means of tracking infectious diseases, enabling early detection of outbreaks and supporting informed public health responses.

This Special Issue focuses on the application of WBE to viral surveillance. Contributions may address both methodological innovations, case studies, and results of monitoring programmes demonstrating the power of WBE in understanding viral dynamics within communities.

Contributions may include the following topics:

  • Detection and quantification of viral pathogens in wastewater;
  • Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2, influenza, norovirus, RSV, adenovirus, and other viruses;
  • Genomic and metagenomic approaches for virus identification and variant tracking;
  • Correlation of wastewater viral load with clinical and epidemiological data;
  • Advances in virus concentration, recovery, and detection techniques;
  • Modeling, data analytics, and spatiotemporal trend analysis;
  • Critical Environmental Factors Affecting WBE Data (persistence/decay of viral RNA/DNA, presence of Inhibitors, population dynamics, etc.);
  • Public health applications and integration with surveillance systems;
  • Standardization and harmonization of WBE methodologies.

Prof. Elisabetta Carraro
Dr. Cristina Pignata
Dr. Silvia Bonetta
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • wastewater‐based epidemiology
  • WBE
  • viral surveillance
  • virus shedding
  • sewage
  • viral dynamics

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1951 KB  
Article
Wastewater Surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 in Rural Kentucky, 2021–2023
by James W. Keck, Reuben Adatorwovor, Ann Noble, Savannah Tucker, William D. Strike, Soroosh Torabi, Mohammad Dehghan Banadaki, Blazan Mijatovic, Steven K. Roggenkamp, Donna L. McNeil, Lindell E. Ormsbee and Scott M. Berry
Viruses 2026, 18(3), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18030282 - 26 Feb 2026
Viewed by 747
Abstract
Wastewater testing for SARS-CoV-2 provided useful public health information during the COVID-19 pandemic yet was underutilized in rural communities. We addressed this gap by implementing wastewater surveillance and assessing its performance in 10 communities in Eastern Kentucky. We collected wastewater samples 1–2 times [...] Read more.
Wastewater testing for SARS-CoV-2 provided useful public health information during the COVID-19 pandemic yet was underutilized in rural communities. We addressed this gap by implementing wastewater surveillance and assessing its performance in 10 communities in Eastern Kentucky. We collected wastewater samples 1–2 times weekly at 10 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) from May 2021 until April 2023 and measured SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations using polymerase chain reaction testing. We calculated time-lagged correlations between wastewater concentrations and county-level reported COVID-19 cases by site. We developed a generalized linear model to estimate COVID-19 incidence from wastewater SARS-CoV-2 concentrations. The 10 participating WWTPs served 2430 to 35,575 customers, and 90% were in rural counties. We cumulatively analyzed 818 wastewater samples. Correlations between wastewater SARS-CoV-2 concentrations and COVID-19 cases were significant at seven of the WWTPs and were strongest during the Delta variant period. The incidence density model predicted more COVID-19 cases during the latter study period (May 2022–April 2023) than were officially reported. Wastewater surveillance data in these rural communities corroborated clinical case data and may have more accurately described community disease levels later in the pandemic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater-Based Epidemiology and Viral Surveillance)
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15 pages, 3347 KB  
Article
Wastewater-Based Surveillance of Respiratory Viruses in the SARS-CoV-2 Post-Pandemic Period in Mexico
by Oscar Uriel Ulloa-Medina, Pedro Gerardo Hernández-Sánchez, Gabriel Mata-Moreno, Luis Rubén Jaime-Rocha, Sara del Carmen Alatorre-Camacho, Ignacio Lara-Hernández, Mauricio Comas-García, Juan Carlos Muñoz-Escalante, Ana María González-Ortiz, Pedro Torres-González and Daniel E. Noyola
Viruses 2026, 18(2), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18020254 - 17 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1023
Abstract
In recent years, wastewater (WW)-based epidemiology has been increasingly used for surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 and has emerged as a potential tool for monitoring other respiratory viruses. Most evidence on the use of WW for detecting multiple respiratory viruses comes from developed countries. In [...] Read more.
In recent years, wastewater (WW)-based epidemiology has been increasingly used for surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 and has emerged as a potential tool for monitoring other respiratory viruses. Most evidence on the use of WW for detecting multiple respiratory viruses comes from developed countries. In this study, we assessed the feasibility of multi-respiratory virus sewage surveillance in a middle-income country and explored signals that may be potentially used as early warning signs for Public Health authorities. We examined the presence of SARS-CoV-2, influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and human metapneumovirus (hMPV) in 238 WW samples collected from three treatment plants in San Luis Potosí, Mexico, over one year. The weekly detection of each virus was compared with the weekly number of hospital admissions for respiratory infections caused by that virus in pediatric patients. SARS-CoV-2, influenza, hMPV, and RSV were detected in 152 (63.9%), 108 (45.4%), 95 (39.9%), and 24 (10.1%) samples, respectively. There was no significant correlation between viral detection in WW and the number of hospitalizations during that week. However, analyses of WW viral detection with hospitalizations in subsequent weeks showed an increasing correlation reaching a maximum correlation for a lag of 12 weeks for SARS-CoV-2 (rs = 0.63, p = 0.001), 9 weeks for influenza (rs 0.62, p = 0.0001), 2 weeks for RSV (rs = 0.30, p = 0.05), and 3 weeks for hMPV (rs = 0.39, p = 0.009). In addition, we identified time-periods of SARS-CoV-2, influenza, and RSV widespread circulation (several consecutive weeks in which viruses were detected in the three treatment plants); most hospitalizations caused by these viruses occurred after widespread circulation was detected in WW, suggesting this may be used as an early alert for public health systems. Overall, our results show that WW-based surveillance of multiple respiratory viruses is feasible and has potential applications as an early warning system in middle-income countries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater-Based Epidemiology and Viral Surveillance)
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Other

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33 pages, 1269 KB  
Systematic Review
A Systematic Review of Methodological Approaches to SARS-CoV-2 Wastewater Surveillance
by György Deák, Laura Lupu and Raluca Prangate
Viruses 2026, 18(2), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18020205 - 4 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1132
Abstract
Following the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers have increasingly focused on monitoring the spread of the virus and improving methods to detect changes in the SARS-CoV-2 genome. Although clinical surveillance provides direct and reliable results, it has limited applicability. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has therefore emerged [...] Read more.
Following the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers have increasingly focused on monitoring the spread of the virus and improving methods to detect changes in the SARS-CoV-2 genome. Although clinical surveillance provides direct and reliable results, it has limited applicability. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has therefore emerged as a valuable, non-invasive complementary tool for disease surveillance. It provides a comprehensive picture of virus circulation in a population, including asymptomatic individuals and those who do not seek healthcare. In addition, it facilitates early detection of outbreaks and the collection of epidemiologic data at the community level. However, WBE also presents technical challenges, including variations in sampling and testing protocols, the presence of inhibitors that affect viral RNA extraction, and the need for standardised procedures between studies. These challenges should be addressed for possible future infectious disease outbreaks. One of the challenges facing researchers was to develop efficient methods that could overcome the extraction and detection problems related to inhibitors present in wastewater. To this aim, this systematic review highlights the potential use of WBE, the variety of techniques, and the most effective methods for the detection and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater samples. A reproducible electronic search of the literature was conducted in the Web of Science (WoS) and PubMed databases for articles published between 2020 and 2024. Our search revealed that the majority of observed WBE applications emphasised a correlation between SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentration trends in wastewater and epidemiological data. Another relevant issue that the articles often discussed and compared was the techniques used in different steps of sample processing, such as sample collection, concentration and detection, hence the lack of standardised procedures. This paper provides a framework regarding previous research on WBE to gain a better understanding that will lead to functional solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater-Based Epidemiology and Viral Surveillance)
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