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Buddhist Art Along the Silk Road and Its Cross-Cultural Interaction
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Buddhist Art Along the Silk Road and Its Cross-Cultural Interaction

A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 May 2026) | Viewed by 10747

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Liming Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Art and Archaeology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310028, China
Interests: Buddhist art and archaeology; history of Buddhism; history of cultural exchange between China and the West
Prof. Dr. Yinggang Sun

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of History, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
Interests: medieval Chinese history; history of Buddhism; Silk Road and Gandhara studies

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Silk Roads, as vital conduits of intercultural exchange, witnessed the transmission of Buddhist art from India through Gandhara to Central Asia, China, and beyond. During Buddhism’s transformation from a regional belief to a global religion, its artistic expressions not only visualized doctrinal concepts but also served as material testaments to cross-regional dialogues, reflecting the historical dynamics of Buddhist propagation. Current scholarship on Silk Road Buddhist art faces dual opportunities: the influx of new archaeological materials and a paradigm shift from single-civilization perspectives to cross-cultural interaction studies. This necessitates an integrated approach employing novel materials, methodologies, and perspectives to reconstruct the historical trajectories of Buddhist art’s transcultural dissemination.

This Special Issue focuses on the genealogical development and intercultural evolution of Buddhist art along the Silk Roads between the 1st and 13th centuries CE. We seek to investigate how visual languages—including sculptural styles, pictorial motifs, iconographic programs, and architectural layouts of cave temples—underwent translation and transformation across diverse regions and cultural contexts while transmitting associated belief systems and philosophical concepts. We advocate for interdisciplinary approaches that transcend traditional disciplinary boundaries and geographical confines, integrating archaeology, iconography, art history, Buddhist studies, and cross-cultural comparative methodologies to achieve substantive progress in Silk Road Buddhist art research.

In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following:

  • New archaeological discoveries of Buddhism along the Silk Road;
  • Cultural exchange and mutual influence between Chinese and Kushan Buddhist art;
  • Transmission routes and cultural origins of Buddhist art in China;
  • Studies on Buddhist cave temples;
  • Studies on Sino-Tibetan Buddhist art;
  • Artistic interactions of Buddhism in East Asia;
  • Foreign civilizational elements in Chinese Buddhist art.

We request that, prior to submitting a manuscript, interested authors initially submit a proposed title and an abstract of 200–300 words summarizing their intended contribution. Abstracts will be reviewed by the Guest Editors for the purpose of ensuring their proper fit within the scope of the Special Issue. Full manuscripts will undergo double-blind peer review.

Deadline for abstract submission: 30 September 2025

Deadline for full manuscript submission: 31 January 2026

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Liming Zhang
Prof. Dr. Yinggang Sun
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Religions is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Buddhist art
  • Asian civilizations
  • the Silk Road
  • mutual learning through exchange
  • Sinicization of Buddhism
  • Gandhara

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

26 pages, 11633 KB  
Article
From Sacred Voice to Wearable Form: Material Translation and the Kalavinka as Jewelry in the Song–Liao World
by Yunxin Xia
Religions 2026, 17(5), 572; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17050572 - 10 May 2026
Viewed by 275
Abstract
This article examines the transcultural and transmedial transformation of the kalavinka motif along the Silk Road, situating its development within the interpretive framework of the Indian kinnara/kinnarītradition. It asks how a figure associated with wondrous sound and devotional praise in Buddhist cosmology came [...] Read more.
This article examines the transcultural and transmedial transformation of the kalavinka motif along the Silk Road, situating its development within the interpretive framework of the Indian kinnara/kinnarītradition. It asks how a figure associated with wondrous sound and devotional praise in Buddhist cosmology came to function as a wearable ornament without losing its religious identity. Through close formal analysis of Dunhuang murals from the Tang period (618–907 CE), the study identifies three interrelated visual processes that prepared the motif for mobility across media: the fusion of gendered pairs into an androgynous form, the progressive elongation and ornamental stylization of the tail, and the reorientation of bodily pose into compact, suspension-friendly configurations. These mechanisms are then examined in relation to eleventh-century painted and excavated materials, including donor adornment in Western Thousand Buddha Cave 16, a Khara Khoto scroll, a Liao (916–1125 CE) gold kalavinka earring, and a Western Xia linked-pearl headdress. Comparative visual and material analysis shows that kalavinka imagery circulated in parallel across mural, painted, and metal media, where scale, material, and bodily placement re-coded rather than erased its sacred associations. The study argues that this process is best understood as material translation, and it proposes a model for linking formal change, sensory affordance, and religious function in the arts of the Silk Road. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Art Along the Silk Road and Its Cross-Cultural Interaction)
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27 pages, 9718 KB  
Article
Praṇidhi Paintings and Inscriptions of Cave 20 at Bezeklik and the Mūlasarvāstivāda-Vinaya Bhaiṣajyavastu
by Jaehee Seung
Religions 2026, 17(5), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17050533 - 29 Apr 2026
Viewed by 358
Abstract
The praṇidhi paintings of Cave 20 at Bezeklik in Turfan are murals representing the cultural sophistication of the Gaochang Uyghur kingdom (866–1283). Building on Grünwedel’s rearrangement of the murals in his 1924 book, this paper examines praṇidhi paintings of Cave 20, with a [...] Read more.
The praṇidhi paintings of Cave 20 at Bezeklik in Turfan are murals representing the cultural sophistication of the Gaochang Uyghur kingdom (866–1283). Building on Grünwedel’s rearrangement of the murals in his 1924 book, this paper examines praṇidhi paintings of Cave 20, with a particular focus on analyzing the accompanying inscriptions in relation to Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya Bhaiṣajyavastu. Le Coq’s numbering system, used in existing literature, has made it difficult to comprehend not only the sequential arrangement among 15 themes but also the order in which inscriptions were derived from the text. Using an alternative arrangement of the paintings, this paper provides a systematic pattern in the derivation of inscriptions from the text, with the following results: The inscriptions of Subject 9 (Ratnaśikin Buddha), Subject 7 (Dīpaṃkara Buddha), and Subject 10 (Kāśyapa Buddha) correspond respectively to three asaṅkhya kalpas of the verses, each conveying a pivotal moment in its period. Seen from left toward the right corridors, the inscriptions follow a sequence tracing from the second to the third, and then the first asaṅkhya kalpa. Following the pictorial narrative, the cycle begins with inviting the Buddha, the donor’s offering and worship, continues with making vows and receiving prophecies from the three Buddhas, and concludes with Buddha being seen off and renewal of devotional engagement by the viewer. These findings help clarify an issue in previous scholarship concerning how the inscriptions correspond to the Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya Bhaiṣajyavastu. This also supports Grünwedel’s early insight that the praṇidhi paintings of Cave 20 were interconnected with circumambulatory religious practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Art Along the Silk Road and Its Cross-Cultural Interaction)
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19 pages, 4661 KB  
Article
A Mobile Temple: Forms and Visual Grammar of Portable Buddhist Shrines from the 3rd to the 8th Centuries Unearthed Along the Silk Road
by Haoran Li and Hengbang Zhou
Religions 2026, 17(3), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17030360 - 13 Mar 2026
Viewed by 679
Abstract
Portable Buddhist shrines refer to small-scale mobile or assembled shrines, typically made of wood, stone, clay, and metal. They were initially used as temporary ritual sites or ornamental attachments for temples and stupas, later becoming independent objects of devotion. This art form, the [...] Read more.
Portable Buddhist shrines refer to small-scale mobile or assembled shrines, typically made of wood, stone, clay, and metal. They were initially used as temporary ritual sites or ornamental attachments for temples and stupas, later becoming independent objects of devotion. This art form, the origins of which can be traced to ancient India and later diverse regional traditions, has been discovered in significant quantities along the Silk Road and neighboring regions. Previously, scholarly attention centered primarily on exquisite wall shrines, stupa-shaped shrines, and stele-shaped shrines. However, when factors such as the spatial arrangement and ritual functions of mobile ritual sites are taken into account, along with the materials and techniques employed in creating Buddhist shrines, artifacts such as badge-style bronze Buddha statues, painted silk banners, and wooden panel paintings may also be classified as portable Buddhist shrines. Accordingly, portable Buddhist shrines can be divided into three forms: pedestal, hanging, and open–close or mother–child. A key reason for this expanded classification is that all such forms are functionally and stylistically linked to large-scale cave temples. Moreover, these shrines share a common visual grammar, defined by the dynamic integration of images and texts and the mutual imitation and complementarity of statue and painting. This represents a quintessential example of cross-cultural dissemination and the coexistence of local traditions in Buddhist art. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Art Along the Silk Road and Its Cross-Cultural Interaction)
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19 pages, 13621 KB  
Article
The Genealogy of a Creative Anomaly: Tracing the Conflated Iconography of Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra from Dunhuang to Late Imperial Folk Prints
by Qi Zhang
Religions 2026, 17(2), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020248 - 18 Feb 2026
Viewed by 783
Abstract
This article investigates a unique iconographic anomaly in late medieval Dunhuang silk paintings: the conflation of the bodhisattvas Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra. Focusing on two key artifacts from the 9th and 10th centuries and tracing their legacy to later folk prints, this study argues [...] Read more.
This article investigates a unique iconographic anomaly in late medieval Dunhuang silk paintings: the conflation of the bodhisattvas Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra. Focusing on two key artifacts from the 9th and 10th centuries and tracing their legacy to later folk prints, this study argues the phenomenon is not a scribal error but a creative Anomaly—a deliberate ritual synthesis. The analysis reveals this synthesis was driven by two forces: a phonetic re-semanticization in the local dialect and a theological logic born from the integration of Huayan School doctrines with Esoteric ritual practice. The paper demonstrates how Huayan metaphysics were operationalized through condensed Esoteric invocations, turning the inscription into a functional ritual shorthand. Crucially, this study demonstrates the genealogical survival of this Silk Road variant in Ming and Qing dynasty woodblock prints. It uncovers a parallel, non-canonical lineage of visual piety, sustained through workshop copybooks rather than elite textual discourse. This trajectory challenges the linear narrative of Buddhist art history, highlighting the generative power of localized adaptations existing outside the purview of the written canon. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Art Along the Silk Road and Its Cross-Cultural Interaction)
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25 pages, 7860 KB  
Article
From India to China: The Origin and Transmission of the Han Dynasty’s Column–Arch–Buddha Motif from a Pan-Asian Perspective
by Wenjun Hu, Xuguang Zhu and Hu Zhu
Religions 2026, 17(1), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17010119 - 21 Jan 2026
Viewed by 2055
Abstract
The artistic exchange during Buddhism’s early transmission represents a vital field within Silk Road art studies. When Buddhist art first entered China during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220), many artistic elements originating from Indian and Central Asian traditions manifested via a highly fragmentary [...] Read more.
The artistic exchange during Buddhism’s early transmission represents a vital field within Silk Road art studies. When Buddhist art first entered China during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220), many artistic elements originating from Indian and Central Asian traditions manifested via a highly fragmentary mode of dissemination. As a result, prior scholarship on Buddhist art in the Han Dynasty has predominantly focused on case studies of individual motifs such as Buddha images, lotus patterns, lions, and elephants. These studies form an essential foundation for the present research. This paper observes that Buddha images from the Han period were not always disseminated as isolated icons but were frequently closely associated with octagonal columns and arches/lintels. Tracing their origins reveals a connection to the “column–arch–Buddha” narrative motif found in the architectural art of Indian and Central Asian Buddhism. This motif extended eastward through the Western Regions (Xiyu 西域, present-day Xinjiang 新疆) and ultimately reached the core territories of the Han Empire, undergoing various transformations—including deconstruction, reassembly, and translation—in the process. Understanding these combinatory modes and their underlying intent is crucial for comprehending the essential nature of the early interaction and fusion between Buddhist art and Han Chinese civilization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Art Along the Silk Road and Its Cross-Cultural Interaction)
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24 pages, 20557 KB  
Article
Rituals in the Last Days of the Dharma: Connections Between the Thousand Buddhas of Zhag Cave in Western Tibet and Silk Road Relics at Dunhuang
by Rufei Luo
Religions 2025, 16(9), 1094; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16091094 - 25 Aug 2025
Viewed by 3759
Abstract
The Zhag Cave in western Tibet, dated to the 11th to 12th centuries, features four walls fully adorned with images of the Thousand Buddhas of the Bhadrakalpa (Fortunate Aeon). According to the Tibetan inscriptions, the arrangement of the Thousand Buddhas creates a circumambulatory [...] Read more.
The Zhag Cave in western Tibet, dated to the 11th to 12th centuries, features four walls fully adorned with images of the Thousand Buddhas of the Bhadrakalpa (Fortunate Aeon). According to the Tibetan inscriptions, the arrangement of the Thousand Buddhas creates a circumambulatory space for worship and confession, enabling practitioners to purify their sins. Four aspects of the Zhag Cave are comparable to those of Dunhuang. First, among the inscriptions is the Pratītyasamutpāda-gāthā, elaborated in the Śālistamba Sūtra, the Tibetan manuscripts of which have been unearthed in both western Tibet and Dunhuang. Second, the way of depicting Thousand Buddhas on four walls inside the cave could be found in earlier caves from the 5th to 6th centuries at Dunhuang. Third, the specific practice of only depicting the Bhadrakalpa Thousand Buddhas on the walls parallels similar caves from the mid-10th to early 13th centuries at Dunhuang. Fourth, the motifs depicted along the wall edges correspond with the prevalent themes found in the Bhadrakalpa Thousand Buddhas transformation tableaux during the 9th to 13th centuries, reflecting the apogee of Bhadrakalpa Thousand Buddhas devotion. These connections prompt us to think about the ways in which Western Tibet was part of the Silk Road network. I argue that this shared iconographic and ritual framework embodies the intertwined religious practices of the Dharma-ending Age (Mofa 末法) thought and Buddhist revival movements along the Silk Road, explaining these complex interconnections between the Zhag Cave and the Dunhuang relics within the broader context of religious beliefs and socio-cultural patterns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Art Along the Silk Road and Its Cross-Cultural Interaction)
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