The paper refers to interdisciplinary research in the areas of hierarchical cluster analysis of big data and ordering of primary data to detect objects in a color or in a grayscale image. To perform this on a limited domain of multidimensional data, an NP-hard problem of calculation of close to optimal piecewise constant data approximations with the smallest possible standard deviations or total squared errors (approximation errors) is solved. The solution is achieved by revisiting, modernizing, and combining classical Ward’s clustering, split/merge, and K-means methods. The concepts of objects, images, and their elements (superpixels) are formalized as structures that are distinguishable from each other. The results of structuring and ordering the image data are presented to the user in two ways, as tabulated approximations of the image showing the available object hierarchies. For not only theoretical reasoning, but also for practical implementation, reversible calculations with pixel sets are performed easily, as with individual pixels in terms of Sleator–Tarjan Dynamic trees and cyclic graphs forming an Algebraic Multi-Layer Network (AMN). The detailing of the latter significantly distinguishes this paper from our prior works. The establishment of the invariance of detected objects with respect to changing the context of the image and its transformation into grayscale is also new. Full article

In the past decade, deep neural networks, particularly convolutional neural networks, have revolutionised computer vision. However, all deep learning models may require a large amount of data so as to achieve satisfying results. Unfortunately, the availability of sufficient amounts of data for real-world problems is not always possible, and it is well recognised that a paucity of data easily results in overfitting. This issue may be addressed through several approaches, one of which is data augmentation. In this paper, we survey the existing data augmentation techniques in computer vision tasks, including segmentation and classification, and suggest new strategies. In particular, we introduce a way of implementing data augmentation by using local information in images. We propose a parameter-free and easy to implement strategy, the random local rotation strategy, which involves randomly selecting the location and size of circular regions in the image and rotating them with random angles. It can be used as an alternative to the traditional rotation strategy, which generally suffers from irregular image boundaries. It can also complement other techniques in data augmentation. Extensive experimental results and comparisons demonstrated that the new strategy consistently outperformed its traditional counterparts in, for example, image classification. Full article

Nowadays, image analysis has a relevant role in most scientific and research areas. This process is used to extract and understand information from images to obtain a model, knowledge, and rules in the decision process. In the case of biological areas, images are acquired to describe the behavior of a biological agent in time such as cells using a mathematical and computational approach to generate a system with automatic control. In this paper, MCF7 cells are used to model their growth and death when they have been injected with a drug. These mammalian cells allow understanding of behavior, gene expression, and drug resistance to breast cancer. For this, an automatic segmentation method called GEMA is presented to analyze the apoptosis and confluence stages of culture by measuring the increase or decrease of the image area occupied by cells in microfluidic devices. In vitro, the biological experiments can be analyzed through a sequence of images taken at specific intervals of time. To automate the image segmentation, the proposed algorithm is based on a Gabor filter, a coefficient of variation (CV), and linear regression. This allows the processing of images in real time during the evolution of biological experiments. Moreover, GEMA has been compared with another three representative methods such as gold standard (manual segmentation), morphological gradient, and a semi-automatic algorithm using FIJI. The experiments show promising results, due to the proposed algorithm achieving an accuracy above 90% and a lower computation time because it requires on average 1 s to process each image. This makes it suitable for image-based real-time automatization of biological lab-on-a-chip experiments. Full article

With a wide range of applications, image segmentation is a complex and difficult preprocessing step that plays an important role in automatic visual systems, which accuracy impacts, not only on segmentation results, but directly affects the effectiveness of the follow-up tasks. Despite the many advances achieved in the last decades, image segmentation remains a challenging problem, particularly, the segmenting of color images due to the diverse inhomogeneities of color, textures and shapes present in the descriptive features of the images. In trademark graphic images segmentation, beyond these difficulties, we must also take into account the high noise and low resolution, which are often present. Trademark graphic images can also be very heterogeneous with regard to the elements that make them up, which can be overlapping and with varying lighting conditions. Due to the immense variation encountered in corporate logos and trademark graphic images, it is often difficult to select a single method for extracting relevant image regions in a way that produces satisfactory results. Many of the hybrid approaches that integrate the Watershed and K-Means algorithms involve processing very high quality and visually similar images, such as medical images, meaning that either approach can be tweaked to work on images that follow a certain pattern. Trademark images are totally different from each other and are usually fully colored. Our system solves this difficulty given it is a generalized implementation designed to work in most scenarios, through the use of customizable parameters and completely unbiased for an image type. In this paper, we propose a hybrid approach to Image Region Extraction that focuses on automated region proposal and segmentation techniques. In particular, we analyze popular techniques such as K-Means Clustering and Watershedding and their effectiveness when deployed in a hybrid environment to be applied to a highly variable dataset. The proposed system consists of a multi-stage algorithm that takes as input an RGB image and produces multiple outputs, corresponding to the extracted regions. After preprocessing steps, a K-Means function with random initial centroids and a user-defined value for k is executed over the RGB image, generating a gray-scale segmented image, to which a threshold method is applied to generate a binary mask, containing the necessary information to generate a distance map. Then, the Watershed function is performed over the distance map, using the markers defined by the Connected Component Analysis function that labels regions on 8-way pixel connectivity, ensuring that all regions are correctly found. Finally, individual objects are labelled for extraction through a contour method, based on border following. The achieved results show adequate region extraction capabilities when processing graphical images from different datasets, where the system correctly distinguishes the most relevant visual elements of images with minimal tweaking. Full article

Image segmentation is one of the main problems in image processing. In order to improve the accuracy of segmentation, one often creates a number of masks (annotations) for a same image and then uses some voting methods on these masks to obtain a more accurate mask. In this paper, we propose a voting method whose voting rule is not pixel-wise but takes into account the natural geometric-topological properties of the masks. On three concrete examples, we show that our voting method outperforms the usual arithmetical voting method. Full article

Watershed is a widely used image segmentation algorithm. Most researchers understand just an idea of this method: a grayscale image is considered as topographic relief, which is flooded from initial basins. However, frequently they are not aware of the options of the algorithm and the peculiarities of its realizations. There are many watershed implementations in software packages and products. Even if these packages are based on the identical algorithm–watershed, by flooding their outcomes, processing speed, and consumed memory, vary greatly. In particular, the difference among various implementations is noticeable for huge volumetric images; for instance, tomographic 3D images, for which low performance and high memory requirements of watershed might be bottlenecks. In our review, we discuss the peculiarities of algorithms with and without waterline generation, the impact of connectivity type and relief quantization level on the result, approaches for parallelization, as well as other method options. We present detailed benchmarking of seven open-source and three commercial software implementations of marker-controlled watershed for semantic or instance segmentation. We compare those software packages for one synthetic and two natural volumetric images. The aim of the review is to provide information and advice for practitioners to select the appropriate version of watershed for their problem solving. In addition, we forecast future directions of software development for 3D image segmentation by watershed. Full article