COVID-19 Academic Resources Center
 

MDPI Comment on the COVID-19 Virus

Since 1996, MDPI has been committed to supporting the research community by providing the latest research freely available and making relevant and useful research available as quickly as possible. The world is current experiencing a pandemic of COVID-19, and researchers are working extremely hard to understand it and find a cure.

The values MDPI holds strongly are particularly important at the moment, and we will continue to publish relevant, peer-reviewed research as quickly as possible in open access format. This means that it will immediately be available for researchers, health professionals, and the general public to read, distribute, and reuse. We believe that scientific advancements will be crucial to overcoming this pandemic, and will do everything we can to support researchers working looking for solutions.

This page contains a variety of information related to COVID-19 available from MDPI, including journal articles, special issues, and preprints, among others.

Recent Publications

21 pages, 843 KiB  
Article
Discrepancy Between Vaccination Willingness and Actual SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination Status in People with Multiple Sclerosis: A Longitudinal Study
by Felicita Heidler, Michael Hecker, Niklas Frahm, Julia Baldt, Silvan Elias Langhorst, Pegah Mashhadiakbar, Barbara Streckenbach, Katja Burian, Jörg Richter and Uwe Klaus Zettl
J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14(11), 3689; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14113689 (registering DOI) - 24 May 2025
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a significant health risk, especially for individuals with chronic medical conditions. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most prevalent chronic, immune-mediated neurological disorder, and vaccinations are essential to its management. This study [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a significant health risk, especially for individuals with chronic medical conditions. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most prevalent chronic, immune-mediated neurological disorder, and vaccinations are essential to its management. This study aimed to compare the reported willingness to be vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2 with the actual vaccination status among people with MS (pwMS) and identify factors explaining the discrepancy. Methods: In a longitudinal, two-center study, we analyzed 149 patients aged 18 or older with a diagnosis of clinically isolated syndrome or MS. The participants completed three surveys: a baseline survey (from June 2019 to June 2020), a pre-vaccine follow-up (from May to July 2020), and a post-vaccine follow-up (from October 2021 to January 2022). The data included sociodemographic, clinical, and psychological information. Results: Among the 149 participants, 122 (81.9%) received a SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, while 27 (18.1%) did not. The pwMS who were unwilling to become vaccinated and remained unvaccinated were less likely to live with a partner, had higher smoking rates, took more medications, had a higher number of previously discontinued disease-modifying therapies, and found pandemic policies inappropriate. No significant associations were found between vaccination willingness/status and factors like age, sex, depression, or anxiety. Conclusions: This study highlights the gap between vaccination willingness and actual status in pwMS, revealing factors associated with vaccine hesitancy. The findings of this study offer insights into addressing vaccine uptake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Clinical Neurology)
13 pages, 686 KiB  
Study Protocol
Understanding COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy: A Neuroscientific Protocol
by Francesca Pisano, Simona Massimino, Giuseppe Craparo, Gabriella Martino, Francesco Tomaiuolo, Vanni Caruso, Alessio Avenanti and Carmelo Mario Vicario
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(6), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15060563 (registering DOI) - 24 May 2025
Abstract
Background: Vaccine hesitancy (VH) is a significant public health challenge, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite extensive research on the psychological and socio-political determinants of VH, its psychophysiological mechanisms remain unexplored. Grounded in the Somatic Marker Hypothesis, this study aims to investigate the [...] Read more.
Background: Vaccine hesitancy (VH) is a significant public health challenge, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite extensive research on the psychological and socio-political determinants of VH, its psychophysiological mechanisms remain unexplored. Grounded in the Somatic Marker Hypothesis, this study aims to investigate the neurophysiological and affective processes underlying VH. Methods: Two experiments will assess sensorimotor resonance and affective processes in VH. In the first experiment, motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) will be recorded from the deltoid and extensor carpi radialis muscles while participants view images of people receiving COVID-19 and influenza vaccines, as well as blood injections (Block 1), and images of vial containing the same substances (Block 2). Facial electromyographic (EMG) activity will measure disgust and fear responses. In the second experiment, skin conductance response (SCR) will be recorded during a virtual reality-based fear conditioning and extinction paradigm. Expected Outcomes: We hypothesize that vaccine-hesitant individuals will exhibit altered sensorimotor resonance, higher affective responses to vaccination stimuli, and impaired fear extinction learning. Psychological traits such as disgust sensitivity, paranoia, anxiety, and dogmatism are expected to be associated with VH. Conclusion: By identifying the psychophysiological mechanisms of VH, this study will contribute to developing effective vaccine promotion strategies to address future public health emergencies. Full article
11 pages, 325 KiB  
Article
Factors Associated with COVID-19 Infection Related Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children: A Multicenter Matched Case-Control Study
by Buddhaporn Prasertsakul, Phanthila Sitthikarnkha, Chetta Ngamjarus, Chaniya Jakeaw and Sumitr Sutra
Children 2025, 12(6), 678; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12060678 (registering DOI) - 24 May 2025
Abstract
Background/Objectives: After pandemic of COVID-19, there were increased the incidence of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C), as reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). However, it remains unclear which specific factors link MIS-C to COVID-19 following infection. This study [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: After pandemic of COVID-19, there were increased the incidence of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C), as reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). However, it remains unclear which specific factors link MIS-C to COVID-19 following infection. This study aims to investigate the factors associated with MIS-C in children infected with COVID-19. Methods: A multicenter-matched case-control study was conducted across Chum Phae, Khon Kaen, and Srinagarind Hospitals, Thailand. We included patients under 21 years old from those hospitals from January 2021 to February 2024. The cases were patients diagnosed with MIS-C, while the controls had a history of COVID-19 infection but had not been diagnosed with MIS-C at least 3 months post-infection. The matching criteria for cases and controls, in a 1:2 ratio, included gender and age. The association between various factors and MIS-C was examined using conditional logistic regression. Results: A total of 34 MIS-C cases were matched with 68 controls. We found that antiviral therapy administered during COVID-19 infection was linked to a reduced risk of MIS-C development, with an adjusted odds ratio of 0.06 (95% CI: 0.02–0.20). However, this study found no association between COVID-19 vaccination and nutritional status in the development of MIS-C. Conclusions: The administration of antiviral treatment during COVID-19 infection was associated with a diminished incidence of MIS-C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Pediatric Infectious Diseases)
14 pages, 933 KiB  
Article
Beyond Empirical Trends: Density Functional Theory-Based Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Analysis of Mono-Hydroxyflavone Derivatives
by Feng Wang and Vladislav Vasilyev
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 5928; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115928 (registering DOI) - 24 May 2025
Abstract
Flavone derivatives have emerged as promising antiviral agents, with baicalein demonstrating the potent inhibition of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro). In this study, the unique electronic and structural properties of 3-hydroxyflavone (3-HF) were investigated using the density functional theory (B3PW91/cc-pVTZ), providing insights into [...] Read more.
Flavone derivatives have emerged as promising antiviral agents, with baicalein demonstrating the potent inhibition of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro). In this study, the unique electronic and structural properties of 3-hydroxyflavone (3-HF) were investigated using the density functional theory (B3PW91/cc-pVTZ), providing insights into its potential as a bioactive scaffold. Among mono-hydroxyflavone (n-HF) isomers, 3-HF exhibits an extensive intramolecular hydrogen-bonding network linking the phenyl B-ring to the A- and γ-pyrone C-rings, enabled by the distinctive C3-OH substitution. Despite a slight non-planarity (dihedral angle: 15.4°), this hydrogen-bonding network enhances rigidity and influences the electronic environment. A 13C-NMR chemical shift analysis revealed pronounced quantum mechanical effects of the C3-OH group, diverging from the trends observed in other flavones. A natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis highlighted an unusual charge distribution, with predominantly positive charges on the γ-pyrone C-ring carbons, in contrast to the typical negative charges in flavones. These effects impact C1s orbital energies, suggesting that the electronic structure plays a more significant role in 13C-NMR shifts than simple ring assignments. Given the established antiviral activity of hydroxylated flavones, the distinct electronic properties of 3-HF may enhance its interaction with SARS-CoV-2 Mpro, making it a potential candidate for further investigation. This study underscores the importance of quantum mechanical methods in elucidating the structure–activity relationships of flavones and highlights 3-HF as a promising scaffold for future antiviral drug development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical and Molecular Sciences)
20 pages, 1021 KiB  
Review
Interferon Lambda: The Next Frontier in Antiviral Therapy?
by Sofia Chronopoulou and Ilias Tsochantaridis
Pharmaceuticals 2025, 18(6), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/ph18060785 (registering DOI) - 24 May 2025
Abstract
Type III interferons (IFN-λ) are the most recently identified members of the interferon family, distantly related to type I interferons and members of the interleukin-10 (IL-10). Unlike type I interferons, which have broadly distributed cellular receptors, IFN-λ signals through a heterodimeric receptor complex [...] Read more.
Type III interferons (IFN-λ) are the most recently identified members of the interferon family, distantly related to type I interferons and members of the interleukin-10 (IL-10). Unlike type I interferons, which have broadly distributed cellular receptors, IFN-λ signals through a heterodimeric receptor complex with primary expression on epithelial cells. This restricted receptor distribution makes IFN-λ a favorable candidate for therapeutic and antiviral applications with reduced side effects. In this review, we describe the molecular structure, signaling mechanisms, and the role of IFN-λ in the innate immunity of epithelial tissue, which are its primary sites of action. Moreover, this review will summarize and critically examine the antiviral potential of IFN-λ based on all published clinical trials conducted for the treatment of COVID-19, and hepatitis B, C and D virus. Furthermore, this review suggests IFN-λ as a promising therapeutic recombinant protein, with special emphasis on its potential for production using alternative expression and advanced drug delivery systems. To emphasize its potential as a therapeutic intervention, the design and engineering of recombinant IFN-λ will be presented, with a focus on its lower side-effect profile compared to Type I interferons. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biopharmaceuticals)
17 pages, 1880 KiB  
Article
One-Year Monitoring of the Evolution of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Subvariants Through Wastewater Analysis (Central Italy, August 2023–July 2024)
by Alessandra Nappo, Maya Petricciuolo, Giulia Berno, Agnese Carnevali, Cesare Ernesto Maria Gruber, Giulia Bicchieraro, Roberta Spaccapelo, Martina Rueca, Fabrizio Carletti, Pietro Giorgio Spezia, Carolina Veneri, Giuseppina La Rosa, Elisabetta Suffredini, Daniele Focosi, Giovanni Chillemi, Ermanno Federici and Fabrizio Maggi
Life 2025, 15(6), 850; https://doi.org/10.3390/life15060850 (registering DOI) - 24 May 2025
Abstract
Wastewater surveillance has proven to be a cost-effective, non-invasive method for monitoring the spread and evolution of SARS-CoV-2, yet its value during today’s low-incidence phase is still being defined. Between August 2023 and July 2024, 42 composite wastewater samples were collected in Perugia, [...] Read more.
Wastewater surveillance has proven to be a cost-effective, non-invasive method for monitoring the spread and evolution of SARS-CoV-2, yet its value during today’s low-incidence phase is still being defined. Between August 2023 and July 2024, 42 composite wastewater samples were collected in Perugia, Italy and analyzed using RT-qPCR and whole-genome sequencing to identify circulating SARS-CoV-2 lineages. In parallel, clinical samples (respiratory tract samples) were collected and analyzed, allowing for direct comparisons to confirm the robustness of the wastewater findings. The sewage viral loads ranged from 8.9 × 105 to 4.9 × 107 genome copies inhabitant−1 day−1, outlining two modest community waves (September–December 2023 and May–July 2024). Sequencing resolved 403 Omicron lineages and revealed three successive subvariant phases: (i) XBB.* dominance (August–October 2023), when late-Omicron XBB subvariants (mainly EG.5.* and XBB.1.5) accounted for almost all genomes; (ii) a BA.2.86/JN surge (November 2023–March 2024), during which the BA.2.86 subvariant, driven mainly by its JN descendants (especially JN.1), rapidly displaced XBB.* and peaked at 89% in February 2024; and (iii) KP.* takeover (April–July 2024), with JN.1-derived KP subvariants rising steadily and KP.3 reaching 81% by July 2024, thereby becoming the dominant lineage. Comparisons of data from wastewater and clinical surveillance demonstrated how the former presented a much higher diversity of circulating viral lineages. Importantly, some subvariants (including BA.2.86*) were detected in wastewater weeks to months prior to clinical identification, and for longer periods. Taken together, the obtained data validated wastewater surveillance as an effective early warning system, especially during periods of low infection prevalence and/or limited molecular testing efforts. This methodology can thus complement clinical surveillance by offering valuable insights into viral dynamics at the community level and enhancing pandemic preparedness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology)
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Sequencing Techniques and Genomics Technologies to Help with Diagnostics and Virus Characterization – Focus on COVID 19
edited by , Hugh E. Olsen, and
submission deadline 15 Apr 2021 | 10 articles | Viewed by 65811
Keywords: Genomics technologies; Sequencing techniques; Metagenomics; Virus sequencing; Genetic diagnostics; qPCR; Nanopore sequencing; Single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing; Next-generation sequencing (NGS); Third-generation sequencing; Virus characterization; Long-read sequencing; Comparative genomics; Functional genomics; Diagnostic tests; Infectious diseases; Pandemic; SARS-CoV-2; COVID-19; Coronavirus; Genomic epidemiology; Population stratification; Genetic susceptibility; Host interactions
(This special issue belongs to the Section Technologies and Resources for Genetics)
Genetic and Structural Analyses of Coronaviruses: Insights into SARS-CoV-2 and Beyond
edited by
submission deadline 30 May 2025 | 4 articles | Viewed by 4335 | Submission Open
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2 variants; protein variants; protein structure; virus evolution; mutations; structural bioinformatics; molecular phylogenesis; host– pathogen molecular interactions; molecular immunology; drug discovery
(This special issue belongs to the Section Molecular Biophysics: Structure, Dynamics, and Function)
Recent Advances in Pathophysiology and Immunology Related to SARS-CoV-2 Infection
edited by
submission deadline 30 May 2025 | 5 articles | Viewed by 7317 | Submission Open
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2; COVID-19; immunology; pathophysiology; immunopathology
(This special issue belongs to the Section Molecular Pathology, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics)
Infection and Immunity Response Mechanism of Coronavirus in Animals
edited by , , and Yanke Shan
submission deadline 30 May 2025 | 4 articles | Viewed by 8629 | Submission Open
Keywords: coronavirus; infection; immunity; anti-virus; vaccines; mechanism  
(This special issue belongs to the Section Veterinary Clinical Studies)
Influenza, SARS-CoV-2, RSV and Other Vaccines: Immunogenicity Parameters and Protection, 3rd Edition
edited by
submission deadline 30 May 2025 | 7 articles | Viewed by 13512 | Submission Open
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2; serology; cellular immune response; protection; vaccines; influenza; Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)
(This special issue belongs to the Section Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals)
Post-Pandemic Challenges: Endemic COVID-19, Vaccine Hesitancy, and Viral Resurgence
edited by Marcin Walkowiak and
submission deadline 31 May 2025 | 5 articles | Viewed by 3915 | Submission Open
Keywords: vaccine hesitancy; COVID-19; epidemiology; endemic viruses; natural immunity
(This special issue belongs to the Section Infectious Diseases)

State-of-the-Art Webinars on COVID-19


WEBINAR 1: How to Avoid a New Lockdown?

The first webinar in the series, held on 17 April 2020, saw both Prof. Dr. Antoine Flahault, Director of the Institute of Global Health, University of Geneva, Switzerland, and Prof. Dr. Evelyne Bischof, Associate Professor, Shanghai University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Shanghai, China and Research physician, University Hospital of Basel, Basel, Switzerland speak on this topic.

The recording can be found here.

WEBINAR 2: Coronaviruses: History, Replication, Innate Immune Antagonism

The second webinar in the series, entitled “Coronaviruses: history, replication, innate immune antagonism”, saw Prof. Dr. Susan R. Weiss, Professor of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania speak on this topic.

The recording can be found here.

WEBINAR 3: Could the COVID-19 Crisis be the Opportunity to Make Cities Carbon Neutral, Liveable and Healthy

The third webinar in this series was presented by Prof. Dr. Mark Nieuwenhuijsen, a world leading expert in environmental exposure assessment, epidemiology, and health risk/impact assessment with a strong focus and interest on healthy urban living. 

The recording can be found here

WEBINAR 4: COVID-19 - Global Supply Chains and the SDGs

For the fourth webinar of this series, Prof. Dr. Max Bergman, Dr. Dorothea Schostok and Prof. Dr. Patrick Paul Walsh gave a presentation on Global Supply Chains and the SDGs. 

The recording can be found here.

WEBINAR 5: The New Role of Family Physicians in Times of COVID-19

The fifth webinar of the COVID-19 Series saw Prof. Dr. Christos Lionis discuss the new role of family physicians that emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The recording can be found here.

WEBINAR 6: Survey on Symptoms/Signs, Protective Measures, Level of Awareness and Perception Regarding COVID-19 Outbreak among Dentists

In the sixth webinar of this series, Prof. Dr. Guglielmo Campus and Prof. Dr. Maria Grazia present and discuss the risk and the preventions that can and should be taken by dentists during this pandemic.

The recording can be found here.

WEBINAR 7: Living with COVID-19: An Early Intervention Therapeutic Strategy to Control the Pandemic

The seventh webinar of the COVID-19 series, Dr. Hamid Merchant discussed the different therapeutic strategies that can be adopted in the early stages of the infection.

The recording can be found here.

WEBINAR 8: Impact of COVID-19 on Routine Immunization, Reproduction and Pregnancy Outcome

For the eighth COVID-19 webinar, Prof. Dr. Jon Øyvind Odland discussed the effect that COVID-19 seems to have on pregnant women; whereas Prof. Dr. Giovanni Gabutti discussed the role of routine immunization as a way of fighting COVID-19.

The recording can be found here.

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