Interaction Design Strategies for Socio-Spatial Embodiment in Virtual World Learning
Abstract
1. Introduction
- How do presence, place, and community intersect in desktop virtual world learning environments?
- What design strategies do experienced educators use to facilitate this intersection to enhance students’ learning experiences in these environments?
2. Background
2.1. The Transformation from Virtual Space to Meaningful Place
2.2. Metaphors of Architectural Elements and Principles in Virtual Worlds
2.3. Presence, Social Presence and Community Formation
2.4. Interaction Design in Virtual Learning Environments
2.4.1. Affordances and Signifiers in the Interaction Design
2.4.2. Interactive Affordances in Desktop Virtual Worlds
2.5. Embodied Cognition and Learning in Virtual Worlds
3. The Socio-Spatial Embodiment Model
3.1. Model Development and Evolution
3.2. Framework Structure
- Unified Triadic Relationship: Presence, place, and community operate as an integrated whole where each element continuously shapes and is shaped by the others.
- Dynamic Interdependence: The three dimensions exist in mutually reinforcing relationships creating a dynamic system rather than linear progression.
- Emergent Learning Experience: At the convergence point, transformative educational results emerge that cannot be reduced to individual components or pairs.
4. Methods
4.1. Participants
4.2. Data Collection
4.2.1. Interview Protocol Development
- Teaching Context: Exploring educators’ pedagogical philosophies and objectives
- Platform Comparison: Examining advantages and limitations of DVWs versus video conferencing
- Interface Utilization: Understanding how educators leveraged DVW user interface elements and functionalities
- Design Adaptations: Investigating how real-world elements and metaphors were utilized in virtual spaces
- Experiential Dimensions: Analyzing how platforms supported presence, place, and community
4.2.2. Interview Process
4.3. Data Analysis
4.3.1. Analytical Scope and Focus
4.3.2. Analytical Framework
4.3.3. Data Preparation
4.3.4. Coding Process
4.3.5. Theme Development
4.3.6. Qualitative Rigor and Validation
4.3.7. Researcher Positioning and Reflexivity
5. Findings
5.1. Experiencing Presence Through Environmental Design
5.1.1. Cognitive Engagement Through Offloading and Interpolation
“This facility looks very predictable; classroom space off the main space… nice couches down on the main floor… windows that you can see through, and see the surrounding landscape which also looks quite predictable.”
“As you walk up it… you’re always turning in the same direction… you’re always turning left. You always know the next ramp is going to be on the left.”
“The fact that most of our working spaces here are relatively small… each of the floors of the towers is 20 by 20 and so there’s a certain amount of stuff within that space; so I think it makes it less overwhelming.”
“Notice how big the spaces are in this building. In a virtual world where you’re using your mouse and ’mouse look’ and everything, you need great big spaces… so you can navigate, and that’s been demonstrated.”
“Many students don’t have access to high-graphic or high-power computers, so simplified objects help them to experience the world better… otherwise lagging and not rendering good enough won’t let them have a good experience.”
“To me that was a real revelation when I first started looking into this, that it’s like 90% of really being there; even with the crappy 2D graphics and same old keyboard, and so on, so forth, still your brain interpolates over all these imperfections, and you have the subjective sense of actually talking to a real person.”
5.1.2. Embodied Presence Through Biophilic Design Metaphor
“If any of us want to feel better, what do we do? We go out into nature. We go to the sea, we go to the forest… nature makes us feel good because we are of nature… virtual spaces are also man-made, digitally created, and they’re not natural to our system… plants help to make it less virtual and more familiar.”
“When you walked towards this wall where you could see the water, it was like a sort of a grounding. It stopped people from feeling uncomfortable and it was quite powerful. So your brain is telling you that it’s not real, but your eyes are saying this is what you need to make you feel okay.”
“I often have to explain to people about how so many man-made things are so difficult for neurodiverse people because you know we are not attuned to fluorescent lighting or neon lighting or all these man-made things. It’s not natural to us.”
5.2. Meaningful Learning Places in the Intersection of Embodied Presence and Community
5.2.1. Balancing Familiarity with Innovation in Virtual Place Design
“Like we were discussing, the idea of when we had a room in [name of the university]; put together as a classroom with seating and like a podium at the top. So they’re things that instantly are recognizable to a student as being a place where we should be quiet, have respect, sit down. Somebody is going to stand at the top of the class, give a lecture, so it’s instantly recognizable.”
“I always bring them down here and I always ask them to make their home to this place… when you click on the home icon, then it takes you back… you don’t ever get lost.”
“It’s really more about setting up an area where they feel comfortable… and I changed this one area around quite a bit. Right now, I have a very large class, so I have more chairs, but often I remove them… so less chairs for a small group is more intimate.”
“You might have done that with your bodies down on the floor, and so we take those chairs out. There are no chairs you have to worry about. You cannot mess up sitting on those pillows… so that’s the sort of thing you’re working for that… as you’re in a community college. We have students who don’t have much money. they have really poor computers.”
“Instead of using slideshows, we produce big panels… then your avatar can sit in different parts of that panels that relate to the particular topic you’re talking about… so people can get an overview of it.”
5.2.2. Embedding Knowledge in Place Through Spatial Scaffolding
“This goes from DNA structure up to chromosome structure, and then up to… you can see the comparison between human chromosomes and other species here.”
“The included objects really could depend on the teaching subject… there was a successful outer space environment for learning math; the environment itself was very minimal and the objects were the point of the space which students loved… so what this does is, it draws their attention to the interaction, rather than the environment itself. That was my point… however, this is different from learning history where the replication of a historical era could give an immersive experience of that time of history.”
“And I haven’t seen him in real life for several years. So we would have conversations in our virtual [Name] institute; and then at some real life scientific conference, I ran into him, and we just continue conversations from previous day, as it was the same thing.”
“A number of people notice that if you’re exchanging ideas or having a conversation with somebody, it stores the memory of that conversation better if it was done in a virtual world, in the same place, if you will, as the real-world conversation… as opposed to if it was on the phone or by email.”
5.3. Cultivating Community Through Shared Presence in Meaningful Places
5.3.1. Creating Varied Social Environments for Inclusive Interaction
“You can make parcels on the region… you can make voice [areas] that are limited to that parcel.”
“On our campus there are just lots of possible spaces for students to meet and they’re far enough apart that the chat won’t interfere with each other.”
“It would be lovely to have a breakout room that is absolutely set up as a sensory space like a quiet space.”
“Sometimes in social situations when you’re dealing with people from different parts of the world, different religions, different cultural expectations, I think it’s good maybe to have that little breakout room every now and again for a teacher to be mindful of their students.”
“I think it’s inclusive and that goes back to not putting your ideology in the system. Don’t put anything in the system that is going to offend or make people even think twice.”
“But I think that schools shouldn’t take or environments shouldn’t take a stance. So don’t put [a political figure] posters on the walls of the classroom that you design in second life.”
5.3.2. Temporal Dimensions of Community Formation
“For the sense of community, it is important to have synchronous classes. It is very hard to create a sense of community in the asynchronous classes.”
“I mean just to be able to explore together. I curate a list of places for each field trip. I curated a list of educational spaces. We go to those educational spaces, and students will explore, and they will tell each other, ’Oh, look at this, and how do you do that?’ And then they try to figure things out together.”
“So I think you need some kind of regularity in order to make that kind of thing work regularly.”
“So, I sponsor a dance for the class; they could dance with each other… you see that’s the common experience where people sort of get to know each other.”
“Features that enable a sense of community would be to create events… and definitely to have functionalities like being able to type or to be able to speak or neither; sometimes you meet people who just don’t say anything.”
“Students’ schedules vary, [so] it is very hard to develop a sense of community in the virtual world, as they don’t come to the world at the same time.”
“We didn’t do that, simply because this is a community college; most of them are working jobs and stuff like that… and they’re coming to college at certain times when they can take a class… that’s the time they can do it. They can’t be doing it other times; they might have kids at home and stuff… so rather than have them collaborate, they can just come in and do it whenever they have the time to do it… that’s kind of our thinking on that.”
5.3.3. Identity and Place in Community Formation
“When I was teaching using this platform [Zoom], at the end of the semester, we had a bit of a community. But it just wasn’t the same. We didn’t interact with each other physically. The sense of community stopped at the screen, the photo, the picture, the image on the screen… in 3D worlds, we’re not stopped by the image.”
“Yeah, I will say one thing everybody did was to make a t-shirt. So we definitely had a university [university’s name] t-shirt. Some students would wear them. That was kind of cool.”
“So that little tiny piece just made me feel good that they felt like they were really at [university’s name]… they were really a [university’s name] student and she (a remote student) literally said that: ’it’s the first time I felt like I’m a real [university’s name] student.’”
“There’s a kind of social code that you acquire as you interact with people here, and I think that helps to contribute to the sense of community.”
6. Discussion & Conclusions
6.1. How Presence, Place, and Community Intersect in Desktop Virtual World Learning Environments
6.2. Design Strategies That Facilitate This Intersection
6.3. Limitations and Future Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
SSE Model | Socio-Spatial Embodiment Model |
DVWs | Desktop Virtual Worlds |
HCI | Human-Computer Interaction |
VWEC | Virtual World Education Consortium |
SL | Second Life |
Appendix A. Demographic Information of Study Participants
Appendix B. Educator Interview Questions
Appendix B.1. Educators’ Teaching Objectives & Strategies and Their Experiences with Virtual World Learning Environments
Appendix B.1.1. Objectives & Strategies
- What do you teach?
- What is your teaching approach/philosophy?
- What are your primary teaching objectives?
- Did you in general enjoy teaching?
- What are the primary teaching objectives that you aim to achieve by using a virtual world learning environment?
- What instructional strategies do you employ in your virtual world classrooms?
- What strategies do you use when setting up your virtual world classrooms to make it more engaging for students or enhance their participation?
- What tools/settings/educational objects do you use for implementing these strategies?
Appendix B.1.2. Experiences: Advantages & Challenges
- What do you perceive as the biggest advantages of using virtual world classroom compared to video conferencing ones?
- What do you perceive as the biggest challenges or drawbacks of using virtual world classroom compared to video conferencing ones?
- What are your expectations of a virtual world classroom experience compared to video conferencing ones?
- What challenges have you encountered when using virtual world classrooms over the past year compared to video conferencing ones? Please explain and provide examples if possible.
- What are your most memorable teaching experiences (both positive and negative) when teaching in the virtual worlds compared to video conferencing?
- How would you describe your ability to connect/interact with students in virtual world classrooms compared to video conferencing ones? What factors make it easier or harder to build these connections?
- If you had the opportunity to improve the design of virtual world platforms for designing your virtual world classroom, what changes or additions would you suggest?
- Please share any additional comments or feedback you may have regarding the use of virtual world classroom platforms for teaching.
Appendix B.2. UI Elements
- What user interface elements and functionalities do you use most often in your virtual world classroom (e.g., Second Life) that enhance your teaching and students’ learning experience?
- How do you leverage the unique functionalities of 3D virtual world environments to facilitate learning experiences that differ from traditional online and video conferencing platforms?
- What specific student interactions, behaviors, or engagement patterns within the virtual world learning environments indicate high levels of engagement, participation, and effective learning?
- What role does the virtual world’s user interface (UI) play in fostering student engagement and collaboration within the learning environment?
- What techniques have you found effective in using the virtual world platform’s UI to support different instructional approaches (e.g., experiential learning, problem-based learning, collaborative learning)?
- Based on your experience, what are the primary challenges or limitations in effectively leveraging the UI and environmental design features of virtual world platforms for educational purposes, and how have you addressed these challenges?
- How do you envision the future evolution of virtual world platforms and their UI/environmental design to better support immersive and effective educational experiences?
Appendix B.3. Real-World Elements
- To what extent do you intentionally incorporate real-world scenarios, simulations, or contextualized learning experiences into your virtual classroom design?
- When designing your virtual classroom environment, what real-world elements or patterns do you intentionally incorporate or avoid to create an effective and authentic learning experience?
- How do you balance the incorporation of real-world elements with the unique functionalities of virtual world environments to create an optimal learning experience for your students?
- How would you describe the overall impact of virtual world classroom design, including the UI and real-world elements, on student motivation, engagement, and learning outcomes compared to traditional online or video conferencing environments?
- How do you use the customizable and flexible nature of virtual world platforms to design and adapt the classroom layout, objects, and interactive elements to support your specific pedagogical goals and student needs?
- How do you design the layout of your virtual world classroom to promote a comfortable and inclusive environment for your students?
Appendix B.4. How Instructors Create a Sense of Place/Presence/Community
- What features in Second Life most contribute to students having a sense of “being there”?
- How much did having an avatar in Second Life that students could customize to represent them add to students’ sense of having a presence in the virtual space?
- What objects, if any, in the Second Life virtual spaces helped orient students and make them feel grounded in a physical location?
- How do you create or modify virtual learning environments in Second Life to convey a sense of place and presence to enhance student engagement?
- What functionalities or features of Second Life do you use to enable a sense of community and facilitate meaningful interactions and communication between students and the instructional team?
- What interactive features in your Second Life classroom contribute to a collaborative and socially engaging learning atmosphere?
- How does the sense of place in Second Life influence the social aspect of co-learning environments, including students’ interactions with peers and the instructional team, compared to video conferencing platforms?
- What specific features or aspects of Second Life contribute to a different engaging learning experience for students compared to Zoom?
- How does the collaboration experience in Second Life differ from Zoom, and what role do virtual tools play in enhancing or hindering collaborative efforts?
Appendix C. Interview Question-Theme Mapping
SSE Dimension | Theme | Interview Category | Sample Questions | How Responses Informed Theme |
---|---|---|---|---|
Embodied Presence | Cognitive Engagement Through Offloading and Interpolation | Interface Utilization | “What UI elements enhance teaching and learning experience?” | Revealed predictable navigation and simplified object strategies |
Experiential Dimensions | “What features contribute to students’ sense of ’being there’?” | Revealed cognitive interpolation phenomenon | ||
Embodied Presence Through Biophilic Design Metaphor | Design Adaptations | “What real-world elements do you incorporate to create effective learning?” | Revealed emphasis on natural elements for psychological comfort | |
Experiential Dimensions | “What objects help orient students and make them feel grounded?” | Identified grounding effects of water, plants, natural lighting | ||
Meaningful Place | Balancing Familiarity with Innovation | Design Adaptations | “How do you balance real-world elements with unique virtual functionalities?” | Identified balance strategies using real-world architectural patterns |
Teaching Context | “What strategies make classrooms more engaging for students?” | Revealed progressive adaptation approaches | ||
Embedding Knowledge Through Spatial Scaffolding | Interface Utilization | “How do you leverage unique 3D functionalities for learning?” | Discovered vertical learning towers, navigable content | |
Design Adaptations | “How do you use customizable nature to support pedagogical goals?” | Identified disciplinary-specific spatial metaphors | ||
Learning Community | Creating Varied Social Environments | Design Adaptations | “How do you design layout to promote comfortable, inclusive environment?” | Identified spatial audio zones, communication thresholds |
Experiential Dimensions | “What interactive features contribute to collaborative atmosphere?” | Identified social space configuration strategies | ||
Temporal Dimensions of Community Formation | Experiential Dimensions | “What functionalities enable sense of community?” | Identified synchronous vs. asynchronous importance | |
Teaching Context | “What instructional strategies do you employ?” | Identified regular events and structured temporal patterns | ||
Identity and Place in Community Formation | Experiential Dimensions | “How does sense of place influence social aspects of co-learning?” | Revealed institutional identity and avatar customization effects | |
Design Adaptations | “How do you create environments that convey sense of place?” | Identified entry points, branding, cultural neutrality |
References
- Kaminstein, D.S.; Stevens, A.; Forst, M. Experiential Work in a Virtual World: Impactful and Socially Relevant Experiential Learning. J. Educ. Online 2022, 19, n2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Budhai, S.S.; Skipwith, K. Best Practices in Engaging Online Learners Through Active and Experiential Learning Strategies; Routledge: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Felton, W.M.; Jackson, R.E. Presence: A review. Int. J. Hum. Interact. 2022, 38, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lewicka, M. Place attachment: How far have we come in the last 40 years? J. Environ. Psychol. 2011, 31, 207–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trinkenreich, B.; Stol, K.J.; Sarma, A.; German, D.M.; Gerosa, M.A.; Steinmacher, I. Do I belong? Modeling sense of virtual community among Linux kernel contributors. In Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE/ACM 45th International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE), Melbourne, Australia, 14–20 May 2023; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2023; pp. 319–331. [Google Scholar]
- Alkhalidi, A.S.; Izani, M.; Aishah, A.R.; Mustafa, F. Exploring the Virtual Space in the Metaverse: A Case Study Analysis. In Proceedings of the 2023 Intermountain Engineering, Technology and Computing (IETC), Provo, UT, USA, 12–13 May 2023; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2023; pp. 61–66. [Google Scholar]
- Marks, B.; Thomas, J. Adoption of virtual reality technology in higher education: An evaluation of five teaching semesters in a purpose-designed laboratory. Educ. Inf. Technol. 2022, 27, 1287–1305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barreda-Ángeles, M.; Hartmann, T. Psychological benefits of using social virtual reality platforms during the covid-19 pandemic: The role of social and spatial presence. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2022, 127, 107047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodval, R.S. A Sense of Place in a Placeless Non-Place. Master’s Thesis, The University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 2024. [Google Scholar]
- Sayadi, N.; Co, S.; Gomez-Zara, D. “Feeling that I was Collaborating with Them”: A 20 years Systematic Literature Review of Social Virtual Reality Leveraging Collaboration. arXiv 2024, arXiv:2412.20266. [Google Scholar]
- Barranco Merino, R.; Higuera-Trujillo, J.L.; Llinares Millán, C. The use of sense of presence in studies on human behavior in virtual environments: A systematic review. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 13095. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lo, S.C.; Tsai, H.H. Design of 3D virtual reality in the metaverse for environmental conservation education based on cognitive theory. Sensors 2022, 22, 8329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kljajevic, V.; Kljajevic, V. Spatial Cognition in Virtual Reality. In Consensual Illusion: The Mind in Virtual Reality; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021; pp. 113–134. [Google Scholar]
- Nasir, M.K.M.; Ngah, A.H. The sustainability of a Community of Inquiry in online course satisfaction in virtual learning environments in higher education. Sustainability 2022, 14, 9633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rahmatalla, F.; Harun, J.; Abuhassna, H. Exploring the Impact of the Community of Inquiry (CoI) Framework on Student Engagement in Online Courses. Int. J. Acad. Res. Bus. Soc. Sci. 2024, 14, 872–895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilson, M. Six views of embodied cognition. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 2002, 9, 625–636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, A.; Ye, J. Human-Computer Natural Interaction Design Practice Based on Unconscious Design Concept. In Proceedings of the Human-Computer Interaction. Theory, Methods and Tools: Thematic Area, HCI 2021, Held as Part of the 23rd HCI International Conference, HCII 2021, Virtual Event, 24–29 July 2021; Proceedings, Part I 23. Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021; pp. 3–15. [Google Scholar]
- Ju, W. The Design of Implicit Interactions; Springer Nature: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Rai, S.; Chakraverty, S. A survey on computational metaphor processing. ACM Comput. Surv. 2020, 53, 1–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doerner, R.; Geiger, C.; Oppermann, L.; Paelke, V.; Beckhaus, S. Interaction in Virtual Worlds. In Virtual and Augmented Reality (VR/AR) Foundations and Methods of Extended Realities (XR); Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2022; pp. 201–244. [Google Scholar]
- Rogers, Y.; Sharp, H.; Preece, J. Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2023. [Google Scholar]
- Furia, P. Space and place. A morphological perspective. Axiomathes 2022, 32, 539–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peace, S.M.; Holland, C.; Kellaher, L. Making space for identity. In Ageing and Place; Routledge: London, UK, 2004; pp. 204–220. [Google Scholar]
- Cartel, M.; Kibler, E.; Dacin, M.T. Unpacking “sense of place” and “place-making” in organization studies: A toolkit for place-sensitive research. J. Appl. Behav. Sci. 2022, 58, 350–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tuan, Y.F. Space and place: Humanistic perspective. In Philosophy in Geography; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1979; pp. 387–427. [Google Scholar]
- Jaalama, K.; Fagerholm, N.; Julin, A.; Virtanen, J.P.; Maksimainen, M.; Hyyppä, H. Sense of presence and sense of place in perceiving a 3D geovisualization for communication in urban planning–Differences introduced by prior familiarity with the place. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 207, 103996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nordbäck, E.; Hakonen, M.; Tienari, J. Academic identities and sense of place: A collaborative autoethnography in the neoliberal university. Manag. Learn. 2022, 53, 331–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, W.E. Toward a Theory of Sense of Place in Online Teaching and Learning. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Hawai’i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA, 2024. [Google Scholar]
- Siemens, G.; Tittenberger, P. Handbook of Emerging Technologies for Learning; University of Manitoba Canada: Winnipeg, MB, Canada, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Schmeil, A.; Eppler, M.J.; de Freitas, S. A structured approach for designing collaboration experiences for virtual worlds. J. Assoc. Inf. Syst. 2012, 13, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bourdakis, V.; Charitos, D. Virtual Environment Design—Defining a new direction for architectural education. In Proceedings of the Architectural Computing from Turing to 2000, Liverpool, UK, 15–17 September 1999; Virtual Site Planning. pp. 403–409. [Google Scholar]
- Li, F.; Maher, M.L. Representing virtual places—A design model for metaphorical design. In Proceedings of the ACADIA 2000, Washington, DC, USA, 20–22 October 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Taylor, P.G. Can we move beyond visual metaphors? Virtual world provocations and second life. J. Virtual Worlds Res. 2009, 2, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harrison, S.; Dourish, P. Re-place-ing space: The roles of place and space in collaborative systems. In Proceedings of the 1996 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, Boston, MA, USA, 16–20 November 1996; pp. 67–76. [Google Scholar]
- Campbell, D. Design in Virtual Environments Using Architectural Metaphor. Unpublished. Master’s Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA, 1995; p. 64. [Google Scholar]
- Passini, D. Designing space in virtual environments for aiding wayfinding behaviour. In Proceedings of the fourth UK VR-SIG Conference, Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK, 1 November 1997; Citeseer: Princeton, HJ, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Ebrahimi, A. Empowering Online Learning: AI-Embedded Design Patterns for Enhanced Student and Educator Experiences in Virtual Worlds. In Proceedings of the Companion Proceedings of the 2023 Conference on Interactive Surfaces and Spaces, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 5–8 November 2023; pp. 84–88.
- Turner, P.; Turner, S.; Burrows, L. Creating a sense of place with a deliberately constrained virtual environment. Int. J. Cogn. Perform. Support 2013, 1, 54–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Triberti, S.; Sapone, C.; Riva, G. Being there but where? Sense of presence theory for virtual reality applications. Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun. 2025, 12, 79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, I.; Mortensen, J.; Khanna, P.; Spanlang, B.; Slater, M. Visual realism enhances realistic response in an immersive virtual environment—Part 2. IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl. 2012, 32, 36–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, K.M. Presence, explicated. Commun. Theory 2004, 14, 27–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Minsky, M. Telepresence. OMNI Magazine, 1 June 1980; 44–52. [Google Scholar]
- Hameed, A.; Möller, S.; Perkis, A. A holistic quality taxonomy for virtual reality experiences. Front. Virtual Real. 2024, 5, 1434016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lombard, M.; Ditton, T. At the heart of it all: The concept of presence. J. Comput.-Mediat. Commun. 1997, 3, JCMC321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bracken, C.C. Are we together? Exploring the similarities between the concepts of transportation imagery model and presence and their possible impact on persuasion. In Proceedings of the 5th International Association for Presence Research Meeting, London, UK, 21–23 September 2005; pp. 125–129. [Google Scholar]
- Biocca, F.; Harms, C.; Burgoon, J.K. Toward a more robust theory and measure of social presence: Review and suggested criteria. Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ. 2003, 12, 456–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bulu, S.T. Place presence, social presence, co-presence, and satisfaction in virtual worlds. Comput. Educ. 2012, 58, 154–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caldas, O.I.; Sanchez, N.; Mauledoux, M.; Avilés, O.F.; Rodriguez-Guerrero, C. Leading presence-based strategies to manipulate user experience in virtual reality environments. Virtual Real. 2022, 26, 1507–1518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paulsen, L.; Dau, S.; Davidsen, J. Designing for collaborative learning in immersive virtual reality: A systematic literature review. Virtual Real. 2024, 28, 63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, H.; Shi, Q. Accessing the impact mechanism of sense of virtual community on user engagement. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 907606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huyen, N.T. Fostering Design Thinking mindset for university students with NPCs in the metaverse. Heliyon 2024, 10, e34964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ibarra, B.N. Understanding SEL to create a sense of belonging: The role teachers play in addressing students’ social and emotional well-being. Curr. Issues Educ. 2022, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chatterjee, R.; Correia, A.P. Online students’ attitudes toward collaborative learning and sense of community. Am. J. Distance Educ. 2020, 34, 53–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yılmaz, F.G.K.; Yılmaz, R. Exploring the role of sociability, sense of community and course satisfaction on students’ engagement in flipped classroom supported by facebook groups. J. Comput. Educ. 2023, 10, 135–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaban, A.L. The influence of online presence on learner satisfaction and learning in higher education. Asian J. Distance Educ. 2021, 16, 230–246. [Google Scholar]
- Gunawardena, C.N.; Flor, N.V.; Sánchez, D.M. Knowledge Co-Construction in Online Learning: Applying Social Learning Analytic Methods and Artificial Intelligence; Taylor & Francis: Abingdon, UK, 2025. [Google Scholar]
- Guo, P.; Saab, N.; Wu, L.; Admiraal, W. The Community of Inquiry perspective on students’ social presence, cognitive presence, and academic performance in online project-based learning. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 2021, 37, 1479–1493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alsayer, A.A.; Lowenthal, P.R. Measuring social presence in online learning: A validation study. Educ. Inf. Technol. 2024, 30, 5655–5676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eden, C.A.; Chisom, O.N.; Adeniyi, I.S. Online learning and community engagement: Strategies for promoting inclusivity and collaboration in education. World J. Adv. Res. Rev. 2024, 21, 232–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oprean, D.; Balakrishnan, B. From engagement to user experience: A theoretical perspective towards immersive learning. In Learner and User Experience Research; EdTech Books: Provo, UT, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Baker, D. Human-Computer Interaction Design for Virtual Worlds. 2014. Available online: https://www.academia.edu/6309464/Human_Computer_Interaction_Design_for_Virtual_Worlds (accessed on 8 June 2025).
- Kumar, S.; Chhugani, J.; Kim, C.; Kim, D.; Nguyen, A.; Dubey, P.; Bienia, C.; Kim, Y. Second life and the new generation of virtual worlds. Computer 2008, 41, 46–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ebrahimi, A.; Maher, M.L. Designing Presence and Place: A Framework for Engaging Student Interaction in Desktop Virtual World Learning Environments. In Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), Washington, DC, USA, 13–16 October 2024; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2024; pp. 1–9. [Google Scholar]
- Gibson, J.J. The Theory of Affordances; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hilldale, NJ, USA, 1977; Volume 1, pp. 67–82. [Google Scholar]
- Salomon, G. Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and Educational Considerations; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Norman, D. The Design of Everyday Things: Revised and Expanded Edition; Basic Books: New York, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Malvela, M. Affordances and Signifiers in Virtual Learning Environment Design. Bachelor’s Thesis, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Norman, D.A. Living with Complexity; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Lim, F.V. Designing Learning with Embodied Teaching: Perspectives from Multimodality; Routledge: London, UK, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Dickey, M.D. Teaching in 3D: Pedagogical affordances and constraints of 3D virtual worlds for synchronous distance learning. Distance Educ. 2003, 24, 105–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dickey, M.D. Brave new (interactive) worlds: A review of the design affordances and constraints of two 3D virtual worlds as interactive learning environments. Interact. Learn. Environ. 2005, 13, 121–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marples, D. The Influence of Intrinsic Perceptual Cues on Navigation and Route Selection in Virtual Environments. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Dickey, M.D. An architectural perspective for the design of educational virtual environments. J. Vis. Lit. 2004, 24, 49–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bridges, A.H.; Charitos, D. The Architectural Design of Information Spaces in Virtual Environments. In Proceedings of the 1st International Consciousness Reframed Conference, Newport, UK, 5–6 July 1997; CaiiA, University of Wales College: Newport, UK, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Meneghetti, C.; Pazzaglia, F. Navigating in virtual environments: Does a map or a map-based description presented beforehand help? Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bonk, C.J. Online Training in an Online World; CourseShare.com: Bloomington, IN, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Okutsu, M.; DeLaurentis, D.; Brophy, S.; Lambert, J. Teaching an aerospace engineering design course via virtual worlds: A comparative assessment of learning outcomes. Comput. Educ. 2013, 60, 288–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LaValle, S.M. The Geometry of Virtual Worlds. In Virtual Reality; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2023; pp. 55–81. [Google Scholar]
- Phungsuk, R.; Viriyavejakul, C.; Ratanaolarn, T. Development of a problem-based learning model via a virtual learning environment. Kasetsart J. Soc. Sci. 2017, 38, 297–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schultze, U. The avatar as sociomaterial entanglement: A performative perspective on identity, agency and world-making in virtual worlds. In Proceedings of the Thirty Second International Conference on Information Systems, Shanghai, China, 4–7 December 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Andreas, K.; Tsiatsos, T.; Terzidou, T.; Pomportsis, A. Fostering collaborative learning in Second Life: Metaphors and affordances. Comput. Educ. 2010, 55, 603–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gregory, S.; Dalgarno, B.; Campbell, M.; Reiners, T.; Knox, V.; Masters, Y. Changing directions through VirtualPREX: Engaging pre-service teachers in virtual professional experience. In Proceedings of the Ascilite 2011 Changing Demands, Changing Directions, Hobart, Australia, 4–7 December 2011; pp. 491–501. [Google Scholar]
- Rosenberg, L. The metaverse and conversational AI as a threat vector for targeted influence. In Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE 13th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (CCWC), Virtual, 8–11 March 2023; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2023; pp. 0504–0510. [Google Scholar]
- Fink, M.C.; Robinson, S.A.; Ertl, B. AI-based avatars are changing the way we learn and teach: Benefits and challenges. Front. Educ. 2024, 9, 1416307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kang, J.; Xu, X.; Yan, L. Leveraging affordances of immersive technology-supported collaborative learning (ITCL): A systematic review. Educ. Inf. Technol. 2024, 30, 607–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trgalová, J.; Tabach, M. Affordances of virtual learning environments to support mathematics teaching. Digit. Exp. Math. Educ. 2023, 9, 444–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sutcliffe, A.; Alrayes, A. Investigating user experience in Second Life for collaborative learning. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 2012, 70, 508–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marougkas, A.; Troussas, C.; Krouska, A.; Sgouropoulou, C. How personalized and effective is immersive virtual reality in education? A systematic literature review for the last decade. Multimed. Tools Appl. 2024, 83, 18185–18233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kotsilieris, T.; Dimopoulou, N. The Evolution of e-Learning in the Context of 3D Virtual Worlds. Electron. J. E-Learn. 2013, 11, 147–167. [Google Scholar]
- Gül, L.F.; Gu, N.; Williams, A. Virtual worlds as a constructivist learning platform: Evaluations of 3D virtual worlds on design teaching and learning. J. Inf. Technol. Constr. 2008, 13, 578–593. [Google Scholar]
- Najjar, N.; Ebrahimi, A.; Maher, M.L. A study of the student experience in video conferences and virtual worlds as a basis for designing the online learning experience. In Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), Uppsala, Sweden, 8–11 October 2022; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2022; pp. 1–8. [Google Scholar]
- Dass, S.; Dabbagh, N.; Clark, K. Using Virtual Worlds What the Research Says. Q. Rev. Distance Educ. 2011, 12, 95–111+149. [Google Scholar]
- Bers, M.; Chau, C. The virtual campus of the future: Stimulating and simulating civic actions in a virtual world. J. Comput. High. Educ. 2010, 22, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Makransky, G.; Petersen, G.B. The cognitive affective model of immersive learning (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 2021, 33, 937–958. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klingenberg, S.; Bosse, R.; Mayer, R.E.; Makransky, G. Does Embodiment in Virtual Reality Boost Learning Transfer? Testing an Immersion-Interactivity Framework. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 2024, 36, 116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jetter, H.C.; Reiterer, H.; Geyer, F. Blended Interaction: Understanding natural human–computer interaction in post-WIMP interactive spaces. Pers. Ubiquitous Comput. 2014, 18, 1139–1158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boberg, M.; Piippo, P.; Ollila, E. Designing avatars. In Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on Digital Interactive Media in Entertainment and Arts, Athens, Greece, 10–12 September 2008; pp. 232–239. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, Y.; Wang, L.; Siau, K.L. Human-centered interaction in virtual worlds: A new era of generative artificial intelligence and metaverse. Int. J. Hum.-Interact. 2025, 41, 1459–1501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dodgson, M.; Gann, D.M.; Phillips, N. Organizational learning and the technology of foolishness: The case of virtual worlds at IBM. Organ. Sci. 2013, 24, 1358–1376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, M.J.; Nikolic, S.; Vial, P.J.; Ritz, C.H.; Li, W.; Goldfinch, T. Enhancing project-based learning through student and industry engagement in a video-augmented 3-D virtual trade fair. IEEE Trans. Educ. 2016, 59, 290–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alnagrat, A.J.A.; Ismail, R.C.; Idrus, S.Z.S. The effectiveness of virtual reality technologies to enhance learning and training experience: During the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. J. Creat. Ind. Sustain. Cult. 2022, 1, 27–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vázquez, J.A.C.; Ledesma, E.F.R.; Báez, L.C. Virtual worlds in distance learning. Int. J. Eval. Res. Educ. 2022, 11, 907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Castilho, V.; Henriques, D.; Correia, W.; de Melo Souza, L.; de Barros Melo, S. Embodied Cognition and Tactile Interaction: A Review on How Multi-sensorimotor Experiences Assisted by 3D Printing Can Shape the General Perception of Daily Activities. In Proceedings of the Design, User Experience, and Usability. Interaction Design: 9th International Conference, DUXU 2020, Held as Part of the 22nd HCI International Conference, HCII 2020, Copenhagen, Denmark, 19–24 July 2020; Proceedings, Part I 22. Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; pp. 324–338. [Google Scholar]
- Kruzhilov, S.I. Conceptual Structure of the Virtual Environment as a Factor of Human-Computer Interaction. In Proceedings of the HCI International 2020-Posters: 22nd International Conference, HCII 2020, Copenhagen, Denmark, 19–24 July 2020; Proceedings, Part I 22. Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; pp. 60–67. [Google Scholar]
- Lave, J.; Wenger, E. Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1991. [Google Scholar]
- O’Brien, B.C.; Battista, A. Situated learning theory in health professions education research: A scoping review. Adv. Health Sci. Educ. 2020, 25, 483–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ottmar, E.R.; Walkington, C.; Abrahamson, D.; Nathan, M.J.; Harrison, A.; Smith, C. Embodied Mathematical Imagination and Cognition (EMIC) Working Group. In Proceedings of the 42nd Meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Sinaloa, Mexico, 2–6 June 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Braun, V.; Clarke, V. Thematic Analysis: A Practical Guide; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Kellman, P.J.; Garrigan, P.; Shipley, T.F.; Keane, B.P. Postscript: Identity and constraints in models of object formation. Psychol. Rev. 2007, 114, 502–508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Attallah, B. Post COVID-19 higher education empowered by virtual worlds and applications. In Proceedings of the 2020 Seventh International Conference on Information Technology Trends (ITT), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 25–26 November 2020; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2020; pp. 161–164. [Google Scholar]
- Rojas, E.; Hülsmann, X.; Estriegana, R.; Rückert, F.; Garcia-Esteban, S. Students’ perception of metaverses for online learning in higher education: Hype or hope? Electronics 2023, 12, 1867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peters, T.; D’Penna, K. Biophilic design for restorative university learning environments: A critical review of literature and design recommendations. Sustainability 2020, 12, 7064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gall, D.; Roth, D.; Stauffert, J.P.; Zarges, J.; Latoschik, M.E. Embodiment in virtual reality intensifies emotional responses to virtual stimuli. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 674179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rao, A.N.; RV, S.; Nesin, S.M. Enhancing Educational Spaces for Neurodiverse Learners: Design Standards and Inclusive Solutions. World 2025. [Google Scholar]
- Turner, P.; Turner, S. Place, sense of place, and presence. Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ. 2006, 15, 204–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stavroulia, K.E.; Baka, E.; Lanitis, A. VR-Based Teacher Training Environments: A Systematic Approach for Defining the Optimum Appearance of Virtual Classroom Environments. Virtual Worlds 2025, 4, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schultze, U.; Orlikowski, W.J. Research commentary—Virtual worlds: A performative perspective on globally distributed, immersive work. Inf. Syst. Res. 2010, 21, 810–821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finch, A.; Gaetano, I.; Rutter, J. How Can Events Help Build Connected, Happy and Thriving Communities? Spirit of 2012: London, UK, 2023. [Google Scholar]
- Hutchins, E. Distributed cognition. Int. Encycl. Soc. Behav. Sci. 2000, 138, 1–10. [Google Scholar]
Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Level 4 | Code Example | Quote Example |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Embodied Presence | Cognitive Offloading & Interpolation | Sensory Integration | Visual-Spatial Processing | 3D environment affordance enables natural spatial cognition in virtual world | “We know what we’re doing pedagogically, but because the way that our minds work. That we’re optimized to live in a 3D world.” |
Biophilic Design Metaphors | Restorative Elements | Stress Reduction | Biophilic elements enable improved wellbeing outcomes | “I wonder how much more comfortable you would feel in a virtual space if you recreated this idea of green and more natural environment than the classroom environment.” | |
Meaningful Places | Familiarity vs. Innovation Balance | Comfort Zone Calibration | Architectural Recognition | “At-home” feeling intentionally created through recognizable spatial organization | “She wanted a world that the students were familiar with. So she had the building. She had offices, that’s large atrium which is kind of a nice structure if you’re building something on a campus.” |
Spatial Knowledge Scaffolding | Landmark Systems | Visual Anchors | Unique architectural elements mark important locations | “They recreated the color of the brick that the campus had. that was their goal. I think that was a very smart.” | |
Learning Community | Varied Social Environments | Interaction Contexts | Formal Learning | “Real part of the class” signifies students authentic participation in virtual world classes | “I actually discovered Second Life, or became interested in it, when I was the director for online course development. We were looking for ways to help online students feel like they were a real part of the class.” |
Temporal Community Dimensions | Synchronous Interactions | Real-Time Collaboration | “Being there together” signifies social presence | “We used to meet there once a week, and we were definitely together in that space. We all remember that about Spatial… even though we were all at home, trapped in our own homes, we certainly felt connected.” | |
Asynchronous Continuity | Persistent Evolution | “Pixel versions” of objects in Second Life specifically provide unique persistence advantages | “The fact that you have these persistent albeit pixel versions of things that are manipulatives” | ||
Identity & Place Formation | Personal Identity Development | Self-Concept Evolution | “Being yourself” signifies authentic expression in VWs | “There’s more freedom in the in the virtual environment. You can be yourself.” | |
Place Attachment | Emotional Connection | “Connection to it” signifies students personal investment in their built objects in VWs | “So they’ve started to build right then, and they made that and that’s theirs and they have a connection to it.” |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ebrahimi, A.; Ramaprasad, H. Interaction Design Strategies for Socio-Spatial Embodiment in Virtual World Learning. Virtual Worlds 2025, 4, 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds4030030
Ebrahimi A, Ramaprasad H. Interaction Design Strategies for Socio-Spatial Embodiment in Virtual World Learning. Virtual Worlds. 2025; 4(3):30. https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds4030030
Chicago/Turabian StyleEbrahimi, Arghavan (Nova), and Harini Ramaprasad. 2025. "Interaction Design Strategies for Socio-Spatial Embodiment in Virtual World Learning" Virtual Worlds 4, no. 3: 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds4030030
APA StyleEbrahimi, A., & Ramaprasad, H. (2025). Interaction Design Strategies for Socio-Spatial Embodiment in Virtual World Learning. Virtual Worlds, 4(3), 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds4030030