Evolving Anatomy Education: Bridging Dissection, Traditional Methods, and Technological Innovation for Clinical Excellence

Abstract

Anatomy education has long served as a cornerstone of medical training, equipping healthcare professionals with the foundational knowledge necessary for clinical practice. However, the discipline has undergone significant transformations in response to evolving curricula, ethical considerations, and technological advancements. This paper explores the historical development, current state, and future trajectory of anatomy education, focusing on challenges such as ethical concerns regarding cadaveric dissection, and the need for cost-effective alternatives. The study examines innovative teaching methods, including virtual reality, augmented reality and artificial intelligence, which enhance anatomical learning by providing interactive, scalable educational experiences. Additionally, it discusses the integration of anatomy with clinical practice through imaging technologies, competency-based education, and evidence-based approaches. While modern innovations offer valuable learning tools, they cannot entirely replace the hands-on experience and professional identity formation fostered by cadaveric dissection. A balanced approach that combines traditional methodologies with digital advancements is essential for optimizing anatomy education. By leveraging both physical and virtual resources, educators can enhance anatomical comprehension, improve clinical preparedness, and ensure that future healthcare professionals develop both technical expertise and ethical awareness. This paper underscores the need for continued adaptation in anatomy education to align with the demands of modern medicine while preserving its core educational values.

1. Methods

A narrative literature review was conducted utilizing databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, covering publications from the year 2000 to 2025. Search terms included “anatomy education”, “cadaveric dissection”, “virtual reality”, “artificial intelligence”, “professionalism in medical education”, among others. Studies published in English and Spanish that addressed relevant aspects of anatomy teaching, including traditional methods and emerging technologies, were included. The selected studies were analyzed thematically, categorizing information into areas such as teaching methods, technology integration, professionalism development, and student well-being.

This methodological approach follows the recommendations for rigorous narrative reviews as described by Ferrari [1].

2. Introduction

Anatomy has been a cornerstone in medical education since ancient times, forming the bedrock upon which clinical practice is built. This discipline offers essential knowledge of the human body’s structure and interrelationships, enabling healthcare professionals to diagnose, treat, and care for patients with precision and empathy [2]. Despite its long-standing role, anatomy education has seen significant changes, particularly in how it is taught, the time allocated within curricula, and the resources available for training. In recent decades, pressures from curriculum restructuring, technological advancements, and evolving ethical considerations have led to substantial shifts, prompting debates over the efficacy of traditional dissection-based education versus modern technological approaches [3].

The roots of anatomy education can be traced back to ancient Egypt, where embalmers gained rudimentary anatomical knowledge through the mummification process, and ancient Greece, where Herophilus, often regarded as the father of ancient anatomy, and Erasistratus conducted the first documented human dissections in Alexandria [4]. These early dissections provided insights that formed the basis for systematic anatomical knowledge, but social and religious norms often restricted human dissection, limiting the discipline’s growth until the Renaissance. The resurgence of human dissection in Europe marked a transformative period that laid the foundation for modern anatomy, advancing both medical science and clinical practice [5].

In the contemporary context, anatomy education faces numerous challenges, with medical schools worldwide increasingly moving away from extensive cadaveric dissection due to constraints such as time, cost, and a shortage of qualified anatomy educators [6]. Additionally, ethical concerns surrounding cadaver use have led to the adoption of alternative methods, including virtual dissection, 3D models, and augmented reality (AR) tools. While these innovations offer new possibilities, the decline in hands-on dissection raises concerns about the adequacy of these substitutes in preparing students for clinical practice. Cadaveric dissection is not only a means of learning anatomy but also cultivates “discipline-independent skills essential for healthcare”, skills which may be difficult to instill through virtual experiences alone [7]. As recently emphasized in editorial reflections, the role of anatomists extends beyond technical instruction; it is intertwined with the broader mission of medical education. Anatomists are called upon to not only convey anatomical knowledge but to participate in shaping the ethical and humanistic identity of future healthcare professionals [8].

As anatomy education evolves, it is crucial to consider evidence-based approaches that blend traditional and modern teaching methods. Ghosh argues for a “pragmatic approach” rooted in evidence-based anatomy, emphasizing the integration of anatomy with clinical practice to ensure that students acquire both theoretical knowledge and practical skills relevant to patient care [9]. The concept of evidence-based anatomy (EBA) [10], inspired by evidence-based medicine, advocates using robust research and clinical data to guide educational methods, enhancing anatomical learning and making it more applicable in real-world medical contexts.

This review explores the historical evolution of anatomy education, its current state, and potential future developments. In doing so, it examines the implications of declining dissection-based learning, the integration of technology in anatomy education, and the movement toward personalized, competency-based education. By addressing these areas, this article aims to provide insights into how anatomy education can be optimized to meet the demands of modern clinical practice and improve patient outcomes globally. As noted “Anatomy, as a discipline, must continue to adapt while preserving its core role in medical education” [9].

3. Historical Perspective

Anatomy, as a fundamental field of medical science, has undergone extensive evolution, influenced by societal, religious, and scientific developments. From its origins in ancient civilizations to its establishment as a core subject in medical schools, anatomy has been defined by practices like human dissection, which have bridged theory and practical knowledge. This chapter explores the historical trajectory of anatomy education through three key phases: its origins, its formalization in medical schools, and the development of traditional teaching methods such as cadaveric dissection.

3.1. Origins and Development

The origins of anatomy education trace back to ancient civilizations of Egypt, India, and Greece, where initial studies in anatomy were closely tied to cultural and religious practices. Ancient Egypt, for example, the process of mummification allowed priests and embalmers to gain rudimentary anatomical knowledge, though largely for ritualistic rather than scientific purposes [6]. In India, early texts such as the Susruta Samhita (circa 6th century BCE) described surgical procedures and anatomical structures, although dissection was restricted by cultural taboos [11]. In ancient Greece, human dissection as a scientific practice emerged around the 4th century BCE, particularly with the work of Herophilus and Erasistratus in Alexandria. Supported by the Ptolemaic rulers, they performed dissections on human bodies and documented key anatomical structures, including the nervous system and circulatory pathways. These early dissections, though groundbreaking, faced restrictions as religious and social norms in Greece and later Rome often viewed body dissection as a desecration of the human form, a sentiment echoed in multiple cultures, including early Christian Europe and Islamic societies [5].

During the Islamic Golden Age (8th–13th centuries), the study of anatomy continued, but largely through translations and commentaries on earlier Greek texts. Dissections were typically limited to animals due to religious prohibitions on human dissection, but scholars in the Islamic world preserved and enhanced anatomical knowledge through textual refinement and surgical observation. The influence of the Toledo School of Translators (12th and 13th centuries) was crucial in transmitting anatomical knowledge from Arabic sources to Latin. The translation of Avicenna’s Canon by Gerard of Cremona introduced anatomical terms that served as fundamental references for authors such as Mondino de Luzzi and Guy de Chauliac, thus integrating this terminology into the medieval and Renaissance medical corpus. Some of these terms, such as orbit, pupil, or sagittal, persist in current anatomical nomenclature [12].

By the 14th century, anatomy began to resurge as a practical discipline in Europe. The Renaissance, especially in Italy, marked the resurgence of empirical methods, and human dissection was reestablished as a fundamental educational tool [13]. These advances laid the foundations for scientific anatomy that would flourish in subsequent centuries.

3.2. Evolution in Medical Schools

Anatomy became a formal component of medical education in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. European medical faculties institutionalized learning based on dissection, promoting practical interaction with the human body as essential for the acquisition of medical knowledge. In the 14th century, Bologna emerged as a key center for anatomical study, where Mondino de Luzzi (1270–1326) performed and documented some of the first publicly approved human dissections. Subsequently, figures such as Bartolomeo Eustachi (1500–1574), Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), and Matteo Colombo (1516–1559) challenged Galenic doctrines and advocated for direct anatomical observation through human dissection [5], revolutionizing anatomical science through direct observation and detailed anatomical illustration.

Vesalius’ work “De humani corporis fabrica libri septem” (1543), written in Latin, marked a turning point in the teaching of anatomy and is considered paradigmatic of the beginning of modern anatomy and for which Vesalius is considered the father of modern anatomy. Although he was not an isolated revolutionary, but part of a broader collective movement of anatomists challenging established doc [14,15]. Thus, Vesalius’s work was further advanced by Juan Valverde de Amusco’s “Historia de la composición del cuerpo humano” (1556), an important post-Vesalian text, written in Spanish. By the 18th century, Valverde’s work had been translated into at least four languages (Latin, Italian, Dutch, and German), which allowed for the connection between Renaissance anatomical knowledge and pedagogical needs in health across diverse cultural and linguistic contexts [16].

By the 17th and 18th centuries, anatomy had been institutionalized in most European medical schools. Dissection theaters became common educational settings, and anatomy professors held prestigious academic positions. However, access to cadavers was still restricted in many countries, often limited to executed criminals or unclaimed bodies, which in turn shaped the ethical and legal frameworks of anatomical education [17]. Despite these limitations, anatomy continued to flourish as a core pillar of medical training, with increasing emphasis on observation, documentation, and pedagogical structure.

The 19th century was a period rich in anatomical innovation, with prominent figures such as Bichat, Virchow, Hyrtl, and Henle making fundamental contributions to anatomy, histology, and pathology. Jean Cruveilhier and Henry Gray established themselves as two of the most influential figures in anatomical education during this transformative century. Cruveilhier’s contributions were crucial for integrating pathological anatomy with descriptive anatomy, creating detailed atlases that combined artistic precision with clinical relevance. His work significantly influenced the teaching of anatomy and the understanding of diseases [18]. On the other hand, Gray’s Anatomy revolutionized anatomical education in the English-speaking world by providing a clear, systematic, and clinically oriented text, featuring precise and didactic illustrations [19]. These advances set the stage for the modern approaches to anatomy education that would continue to evolve in the 20th and 21st centuries.

The integration of anatomy into medical schools across Europe set a precedent for modern medical curricula, where anatomy became a foundational subject. However, the importance and rigor of anatomy instruction varied widely by region and school. For instance, while European universities prioritized cadaveric dissection, U.S. medical schools, influenced by the Flexner Report [20], began to question the value of extensive dissection, leading to a gradual reduction in anatomy’s prominence within the curriculum. This shift prompted ongoing debates about the balance between anatomy and other biomedical sciences in training physicians. Some authors argue that “the decline in emphasis on anatomy threatens the core of medical education”, noting that a lack of anatomical knowledge poses risks for clinical practice by reducing diagnostic accuracy and procedural competence [3].

3.3. Traditional Teaching Methods

Cadaveric dissection has long been as the cornerstone of anatomy education, esteemed for its pivotal role in cultivating practical skills and professional identity. Dissection offers comprehensive anatomical knowledge, facilitates the acquisition of essential clinical skills, and instills attitudes necessary for effective clinical practice and professionalism. Also enables students to engage actively with anatomical structures, offering a tactile and spatial understanding unmatched by other methods [7,21]. The dissection experience also promotes professional qualities, fostering a profound respect for human life and a sense of responsibility toward patients. Beresheim further discusses that dissection historically “served as an initiation into medical practice”, imbuing students with the discipline necessary for patient care [22] such as compassion and empathy.

However, reliance on dissection has encountered challenges, particularly in recent decades, due to ethical, financial, and logistical constraints. Ethical concerns regarding the sourcing of cadavers and the psychological impact on students have prompted some institutions to explore alternatives, such as 3D anatomical models and digital simulations. Nevertheless, proponents of traditional methods argue that dissection provides a depth of anatomical understanding that digital tools cannot replicate. Practicing physicians who engaged in cadaveric dissection during their training often regard it as indispensable, asserting that it fosters not only anatomical knowledge but also critical skills and professional attitudes essential for clinical practice [23].

Despite technological advancements, many educators and clinicians continue to advocate for dissection-based anatomy education. Some authors caution that the decline in cadaveric dissection risks producing physicians with “insufficient anatomical knowledge, which compromises clinical proficiency and patient safety” [3]. And it has been suggested that a balanced approach that integrates traditional dissection with modern methods, thus preserving the educational benefits of cadaveric studies while incorporating innovative tools to enrich students’ learning experiences [9].

In summary, the historical development of anatomy education reflects a complex interplay of cultural, ethical, and scientific factors. From its ancient origins to its institutionalization in medical schools and the continued relevance of cadaveric dissection, anatomy has adapted to changing societal expectations and educational needs. However, as medical education evolves, balancing traditional methods with technological innovations remains essential to uphold the discipline’s foundational role in training competent clinicians

4. Current State of Anatomy Education

The current state of anatomy education reflects a dynamic interplay of traditional practices and innovative technologies, which aim to address the diverse challenges facing this fundamental discipline. With limitations imposed by modern curricula and ethical considerations, anatomy educators increasingly seek to balance new teaching methods with clinical relevance. This chapter discusses three main areas impacting anatomy education today: the challenges faced, innovative teaching methodologies, and the integration of anatomy into clinical practice.

4.1. Challenges in Modern Anatomy Education

One of the most significant challenges in modern anatomy education is the reduction of time allocated to it within medical curricula. As noted, underscores “the continuous decrease in teaching time, coupled with a shortage of competent anatomical faculty, has led to a substantial decline in anatomical knowledge among medical graduates [9]. This reduction affects students’ foundational understanding and limits their preparedness for clinical applications. Estai and Bunt further argue that anatomy’s diminished role in curricula jeopardizes students’ readiness for hands-on clinical procedures, which depend on a thorough understanding of human anatomy [24].

Insights of anatomists from many different countries around the world reveal a strong consensus that dissection is more than a technical skill; it is also a formative experience in emotional regulation, professional ethics, and humanistic medicine. A survey conducted in 13 countries found that dissection helps students control emotions and develop professional identity—skills essential in clinical settings. Interestingly, while 34% of instructors included dissection in their undergraduate courses, more experienced anatomists strongly emphasized its formative role beyond anatomy teaching [25,26].

Ethical considerations also pose challenges, particularly regarding the use of cadavers. With increasing scrutiny of the origins and use of human remains, some institutions face limitations in sourcing cadavers ethically and sustainably.

The respectful handling of human bodies in the dissection room is essential to establishing ethical standards for future physicians, and the need for ethical frameworks governing the processes of body donation and preservation has been highlighted [27]. This ethical imperative, coupled with logistical issues, has driven many institutions to seek alternatives to cadaveric dissection, even though it remains a valuable educational tool for understanding three-dimensional structures and anatomical variations.

4.2. Innovative Teaching Methods

In response to the numerous challenges facing anatomy education, particularly the reduction in curricular time and ethical considerations regarding cadaver use, educators have embraced a wide array of innovative teaching methods. Digital tools, such as three-dimensional (3D) modeling, virtual reality (VR), and augmented reality (AR), have emerged as powerful resources, enabling students to explore complex anatomical structures interactively and enhancing spatial awareness and comprehension. A multimodal approach combining traditional and digital methods provides a more comprehensive learning experience that addresses the limitations of a singular approach [24,28,29,30]. Understanding students’ acceptance of these technologies is crucial for optimizing their implementation and effectiveness in anatomy education [31].

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the preclinical phase of medical curricula implemented hybrid models of anatomical instruction, supported by the creation of multimedia didactic materials, ensuring continuity of learning despite the constraints of remote education. In addition to digital and AI tools, active and engaging learning strategies, such as flipped classrooms, problem-based learning, and team-based exercises, have been increasingly incorporated to enhance students’ participation and comprehension in anatomy [32,33,34,35,36].

Artificial intelligence (AI) further contributes to personalized learning experiences, offering adaptive pathways that respond to individual students’ needs. AI-based tools can assist in diagnostics, provide real-time feedback, and offer virtual tutoring, collectively improving student engagement with anatomical material [37]. However, concerns remain about over-reliance on algorithmic interpretations, which may lack the nuanced understanding developed through human observation [38].

Importantly, while digital and AI tools are transformative, they do not entirely replace the tactile experience of cadaveric dissection, which continues to offer unmatched depth of learning.

A summary of key comparative studies between traditional and digital approaches in anatomy education is presented in

Table 1. Comparative summary of traditional and digital methods used in anatomy education.

Year	Author/Study	Traditional Method	Digital/Innovative Method	Key Findings
2006	Biasutto et al. [21]	Cadaveric dissection	compares anatomy teaching using cadavers, computer resources, or both.	Learning with cadavers alone is better than using only computers, but combining both methods yields the best outcomes. Therefore, using cadavers alongside technology is the most effective way to teach anatomy
2010	Arráez-Aybar et al. [2]	Clinical anatomy practice	N/A	Highlights the ongoing relevance of anatomy in clinical practice.
2015	Singh et al. [3]	Cadavers, dissection	N/A	Warns about the risks of reducing traditional anatomy training in clinical settings.
2016	Estai & Bunt [24]	Dissection, physical models	General digital tools	Recommends a multimodal and critical approach to anatomy education.
2017	Ghosh [7]	Cadaveric dissection	N/A	Confirms dissection as irreplaceable for spatial understanding and ethical formation.
2021	Arráez-Aybar et al. [23]	Physician opinions on dissection	N/A	Shows that physicians highly value dissection for their training.
2022	Comer [17]	Dissection and historical practices	Ethical reflection on digital practices	Explores the ethical context of past practices and their influence today.
2023	Ghosh [9]	Anatomical evidence	Integration of digital methods based on evidence	Proposes evidence-based anatomy as the optimal hybrid approach.
2023	Arráez-Aybar et al. [25,26]	Dissection surveys	N/A	Demonstrates the positive perception of dissection among anatomists.
2024	García-Robles et al. [29]; Graziani et al. [30]	N/A	Virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR)	Systematic review on VR/AR in anatomy; shows high effectiveness.

, providing a chronological overview of their main findings and contribution

Studies have shown that dissection enhances professional identity formation and fosters a deeper appreciation of the humanistic aspects of medical practice, experiences that digital platforms alone cannot replicate [39]. Therefore, a balanced and integrated approach—combining hands-on and technological methods—is essential to maximize learning outcomes in modern anatomy education

4.3. Integration with Clinical Practice

Modern anatomy education increasingly emphasizes the integration of anatomical knowledge with clinical practice, recognizing anatomy as a “first clinical discipline” essential for patient care [40]. Traditional anatomy instruction, which often focused on rote memorization, has shifted toward a clinically relevant approach that fosters critical thinking and application. By incorporating clinical cases and imaging techniques such as MRI, CT, ultrasound, and POCUS ultrasound, educators create learning environments that mirror real-world diagnostic processes, reinforcing the practical value of anatomical knowledge in clinical settings [30,41].

The incorporation of basic radiology into the medical curriculum has evolved beyond mere image interpretation. It now includes teaching the appropriate ordering of investigations, the judicious use of ionizing radiation, and providing some exposure to interventional radiology techniques, thereby equipping students with essential diagnostic and procedural competencies from an early stage [40].

Recent evidence suggests that participation in extracurricular research activities, such as undergraduate research congresses, significantly contributes to the acquisition of critical transferable competencies, including critical thinking, hypothesis formulation, and effective communication [42] complementing anatomy education and fostering clinical and investigative skills [43]. Such experiences complement anatomy education by reinforcing students’ ability to integrate anatomical knowledge with research and clinical problem-solving, fostering early exposure to clinical and investigative tools essential in undergraduate medical education

Integrating imaging modalities into anatomy education helps bridge the gap between theoretical learning and clinical application. This integration enables students to develop competence in interpreting radiological images, which is a critical skill for modern physicians. Moreover, anatomy instruction plays a vital role in fostering professional competencies, including teamwork, ethical reasoning, empathy, and self-awareness—qualities essential for patient-centered care [44,45]. Ultimately, this integrated approach ensures that students acquire not only technical proficiency but also the humanistic values required for effective clinical practice.

In summary, the integration of anatomy with clinical practice not only enhances students’ technical skills but also cultivates essential professional attributes such as ethical awareness, empathy, and teamwork. By combining theoretical instruction with clinical imaging, evidence-based approaches, and early exposure to diagnostic and investigative tools in undergraduate medical education, modern anatomy curricula ensure that future healthcare professionals are equipped to navigate the complexities of patient care with competence and compassion.

5. The Future of Anatomy Education

The future of anatomy education is defined by continuous innovation and the commitment to integrating emerging technologies with traditional pedagogical methods. Recent comparative studies on virtual dissection tools versus traditional cadaveric dissection highlight both the opportunities and limitations of digital platforms. Adaptive e-learning systems, high-stakes assessment software, and mobile applications are becoming increasingly common, offering students flexible and personalized learning environments that promote critical thinking and self-directed study. These tools not only facilitate mastery of anatomical knowledge but also prepare students to apply it in various clinical contexts.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly transforming anatomy education by enabling adaptive learning platforms that adjust content to students’ individual progress, identify areas of weakness, and provide personalized feedback. AI-based simulations, diagnostic algorithms, and virtual tutors offer scalable educational solutions that can enhance engagement and learning outcomes [46,47,48,49]. Moreover, immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and the emerging concept of the metaverse are revolutionizing the way students interact with anatomical content. These tools provide three-dimensional, interactive environments that allow students to explore complex structures, practice procedures, and engage in collaborative problem-solving, surpassing the limitations of traditional classrooms [29,50,51,52]. Nevertheless, it has been noted that “the absence of tactile feedback in VR and AR” remains a major drawback, as students cannot develop the same level of tactile skills and precision that traditional dissection provides [53]. The metaverse, therefore, presents both opportunities and challenges: while it democratizes access, it also risks diminishing the professionalism and bioethical standards traditionally upheld in physical dissection labs [54]. Thus, the “Anatomy Room”, as theorized by Cale, illustrates a model where AI-generated simulations in a metaverse could produce realistic yet limited representations of anatomy. This thought experiment highlights the limitations of generative AI, which relies on predefined datasets that may not capture the full diversity of human anatomy [55]. As educators adopt the metaverse, balancing these limitations with its benefits will be crucial.

Importantly, the early integration of diagnostic and investigative tools, such as ultrasound (including point-of-care ultrasound), radiology, and interventional techniques, in undergraduate medical curricula provides students with essential clinical competencies from the start of their training. This early exposure improves the ability to translate anatomical understanding into effective clinical practice, reinforcing the importance of anatomy as a foundation for safe and competent patient care [56,57,58,59]. Furthermore, interprofessional learning initiatives that combine anatomy with nursing, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and biomedical sciences offer valuable opportunities for students to appreciate the collaborative nature of modern healthcare [60,61].

The incorporation of EBA into educational programs ensures that curricula remain aligned with contemporary clinical demands. By emphasizing clinically relevant and evidence-supported anatomical knowledge, EBA reduces cognitive overload and facilitates the development of sound clinical judgment [9,62]. Additionally, emerging research highlights the importance of addressing student well-being and resilience in anatomical training [63]. The emotional impact of dissection, combined with the academic demands of medical training, requires supportive learning environments that foster reflection, psychological safety, and adaptive coping strategies [64].

A crucial aspect of modern anatomical education is the development of professionalism alongside technical competence [8]. Anatomy teaching, particularly through cadaveric dissection, provides an invaluable context for students to develop empathy, ethical sensitivity, respect for human dignity, and an appreciation of the doctor–patient relationship. These experiences help foster a professional identity centered on compassion, accountability, and teamwork—qualities essential for delivering high-quality, patient-centered care [65]. Faculty mentorship, structured reflection sessions, and codes of conduct in the dissection room have proven effective in promoting these values [66].

Taken together, these innovations and pedagogical shifts position anatomical training as a dynamic and integral component of modern medical education. By aligning technological advances with humanistic principles and promoting early exposure to clinical tools, anatomy curricula ensure that graduates are well-prepared to meet the changing demands of healthcare practice with both technical expertise and a strong professional ethos.

It is important to acknowledge several potential biases in the literature reviewed, including small sample sizes, single-institution studies, publication bias toward positive outcomes, and variability in study designs and assessment methods. Furthermore, there are gaps in research regarding the long-term impact of digital tools on clinical performance, the optimal balance between traditional and innovative methods, and the ethical implications of fully digital curricula. Future research should address these gaps through multicenter, longitudinal, and comparative studies to strengthen the evidence base and guide best practices in anatomy education

Conclusions

Anatomy education has continually evolved to address the complex needs of medical training and clinical practice, adapting to technological advancements, ethical considerations, and curricular demands. As highlighted throughout this review, both traditional methods, such as cadaveric dissection, and emerging digital tools, like AI, VR, and AR, have unique contributions that collectively enhance the depth and applicability of anatomical knowledge. Traditional dissection fosters hands-on experience and professional values, such as empathy and respect for human life, which are foundational to patient-centered care. Simultaneously, digital innovations offer scalable, interactive learning experiences that can bridge gaps in resources and support

The future of anatomy education lies in integrating these complementary approaches, thereby reinforcing clinical competence and reducing medical errors. Evidence-based anatomy and competency-based learning provide frameworks to ensure that anatomy education remains relevant and clinically oriented, fostering technical expertise while supporting ethical and professional development. By blending hands-on experience with advanced technology, educators can cultivate healthcare professionals who are both technically proficient and compassionate. This balanced approach to anatomy education will ultimately contribute to improved patient outcomes and a more resilient healthcare system prepared for the demands of medicine.

Based on the current evidence, future anatomy curricula should adopt a blended approach that integrates the best of traditional and digital methods. We recommend maintaining cadaveric dissection and hands-on anatomical exploration as core components while supplementing them with interactive technologies such as virtual and augmented reality, 3D models, and AI-driven adaptive learning platforms. Additionally, incorporating point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS), radiological anatomy, and active learning strategies can further enhance clinical relevance. Curriculum designers should ensure adequate faculty training, provide equitable access to technological resources, and systematically evaluate the educational impact of these innovations. By embracing a hybrid model, anatomy education can better prepare students for the complex and evolving demands of contemporary clinical practice.