Formative Assessment and Educational Benefits

Abstract

Evaluation in education is a complex and multifaceted process, linked to teaching and planning. It represents a powerful tool for regulating behaviors, refining actions, and adapting educational interventions to the specific context in which they are implemented. In this evaluation framework, the work aims to highlight the educational value of assessment, considered a moment in which both the teacher and the student are involved in the teaching-learning process. In particular, formative assessment allows you to find essential information to understand the progress of the actions implemented, highlighting strengths and weaknesses to intervene in educational planning. In this sense, it becomes a valid support for both teachers and students as it allows them to monitor the progress of the teaching/learning process. The work is divided into two parts: the first is theoretical, in which the transition from the assessment of learning (summative) to the assessment for learning (formative) is presented; the second is focused on formative assessment and feedback practices. From a methodological perspective, the literature review emphasizes the potential of assessment that involves students both as recipients and active participants through peer assessment. The paper highlights potential and challenges aimed at improving and experimenting with ways to enhance evaluation competence, which prepares students for professional life.

1. Introduction

Evaluation involves recognizing a situation by gathering information to make a judgment that informs action and change. As a result, the evaluation process impacts individuals on personal, relational, and social levels [1].

In the docimological field, evaluation is not a decontextualized action, but a process consisting of two moments: the detection phase and the expression of judgment [2]; the first corresponds to measurement and the second to the evaluation itself [3].

Evaluation represents an essential moment of the training process; it allows you to reflect and reconsider the planned intervention, understand the progress made along the chosen path, and adapt the training environment in light of the established objectives.

Evaluation allows you to reflect and rethink the planned intervention, understand the progress of the path undertaken, and how to adapt the training setting, taking into account the established objectives. Educational evaluation is an integral part of the planning process and serves different purposes depending on the timing of its implementation. There are three phases of evaluation to consider: ex-ante evaluation, which has a diagnostic function; in-itinere evaluation, which takes place during the formative process; and ex-post evaluation, which has a summative function.

The ex-ante evaluation provides a snapshot of the starting situation in terms of formative needs. From the results collected, the educational intervention will be designed, the activities will be prepared, specific tools and materials will be adopted, and the moments and aspects of the path to be implemented will be defined. The in-itinere evaluation that takes place during the implementation of the educational intervention performs a dual function of monitoring and orientation. This moment provides information related to the objectives set for all parties involved. The ex-post evaluation, which is carried out at the end of the design process, has the purpose of verifying the correctness of the procedures and the correspondence between the results obtained and the objectives set. These phases are linked by a circular relationship that suggests an integrated and dynamic vision of the evaluation process. Evaluating in education means investigating multiple factors: individual and group in terms of motivation, expectations, and roles; on methodological and organizational aspects [4].

About the objects of evaluation, there are various factors involved in the training process to be considered and, in this articulation, the terminological distinction between evaluation and assessment falls: one intensely focused on determining the quality of systems/processes concerning explicit criteria; the other focused more on the products of learning, on the performance of knowledge, skills, and competences [5].

There are four distinct forms of assessment based on the primary actor responsible for the evaluation process: self-assessment, teacher assessment, peer assessment, and group assessment [6]. Summarizing what Trinchero [6] declares, the characteristics of each typology are explained below. Self-assessment, or sharing assessment criteria with the reference community, allows students to emancipate themselves from the cognitive sphere. Although not pursuing strictly didactic objectives, this assessment instance aims to make students aware of the work and objectives achieved; it trains metacognitive capacity, understood as the ability to reflect on one’s cognitive strategies and to adjust them appropriately, and affects the sense of self-efficacy and self-esteem. On the other hand, several critical issues related to self-assessment can be identified. One concern is that students may feel isolated during the process, since they often look to their peers as role models. Furthermore, students may not fully understand the assessment criteria provided. There are also motivational factors to consider: many students are not used to self-assessment, since the school system typically educates them to be assessed by teachers. As a result, they may have difficulty recognizing the value of self-assessment as a practice. Reflection on a product (short essays, multiple choice essays, a paper, etc.) or the activated process aims to recognize the objectives achieved compared to those expected, the difficulties encountered, the errors committed, the strategies implemented, and their effectiveness.

The teacher assessment is carried out by a teacher and/or tutor who is assumed to have in-depth knowledge. The evaluation can traditionally be carried out “manually” or through automatic tools. This form of assessment allows students to verify the achievement of objectives and, where necessary, to orient themselves towards remedial activities. In addition to focusing on the contents of knowledge, teachers and tutors must also pay attention to the social and motivational aspects of learning.

Peer assessment involves having one or more students evaluate a learning product. In this case, the student assesses the work of his classmates, based on criteria shared by the whole group, and at the same time receives an assessment from his peers. By involving more assessors, there is a reflection on a product or process from more points of view, with the possibility of highlighting more specific aspects and receiving more critical insights and suggestions for improvement (self-assessment by comparison). By involving assessors who participate in the same experiences, it is possible to grasp aspects that an external assessor might not. The active involvement of students significantly enhances motivation and increases their sense of responsibility. Additionally, when students assess the work of their peers, they gain valuable insights to improve their work. Among the disadvantages of the practice are the workload required of students and the risk of poorly objective evaluations. A helpful tool from this perspective is the rubric, which is defined as a grid of predefined criteria. The peer assessment leads to the establishment of positive dynamics for learning, such as, for example, comparison with the class’s work can bring out aspects of the problem and resolutions not considered by the student, and the student acquires awareness of the plurality of answers to the problem.

In group assessment, a reference group assesses the objectives achieved and the processes followed by individual members and the entire group. This evaluation may be conducted in person or via technology, such as focus groups designed for evaluation purposes. Key benefits of group evaluations include gaining diverse perspectives, understanding relationship dynamics, and encouraging members to share their work with the group. However, a potential disadvantage is the emergence of negative group dynamics. This may arise from issues related to leadership and subordination, as well as unconstructive criticism, which can lead to demotivation, particularly among quieter members.

This breakdown encourages us to reflect on the complex nature of assessment. This complexity arises from the different actors involved in the processes and outcomes, including students and teachers. Furthermore, teaching encompasses pedagogical, didactic, methodological, relational, and communicative dimensions that contribute to this intricate nature.

2. Theoretical Premises

Educational research, both nationally and internationally, has focused on assessment processes as tools for developing and supporting learning. Specifically, the importance of feedback has been emphasized, differentiating summative assessment from formative assessment. Feedback, a specific element of formative assessment, is seen as a means that allows students to recognize their strengths and weaknesses and to adapt their learning path to improve their performance [7,8,9,10]. Effective formative feedback is directive (indicates what to change) and facilitated (provides suggestions), helping to reduce the discrepancy between performance and established objectives. The teacher should consider students’ goals and prior knowledge when giving feedback, as these factors are essential for effective instructional design. Here, the focus is mainly on actions and tools aimed at detecting a given situation, through the systematic collection of information, to elaborate and attribute a value judgment [4].

Research [11,12] shows that formative assessment is more effective when it focuses on specific performance details that need improvement, instead of providing vague or generic feedback. Effective feedback explicitly highlights aspects of a student’s performance against established and shared criteria. Additionally, it provides valuable information that helps students progress in the right direction.

Evaluation presents an object of a multi-referential nature (products, processes, and systems) and adopts multidimensional interpretative lines (paradigms, methods and tools, categories, functions, contexts). Tracing a brief excursus on evaluation allows us to understand how, depending on the reference paradigm, the object of study is analyzed and with which procedures. The result-oriented perspective (neopositivist paradigm) [13] focuses attention on the product to be compared with the pre-established objective, a heteroevaluative instance with a summative function (assessment of learning). With the affirmation of the pragmatist paradigm [14] or Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP) [15], the focus is on the process; evaluation takes on an orienting function in the teaching–learning process, focusing on both planning and practices.

With social constructivism and the process model [16], the transition from results to processes takes place, and evaluation regulates and supports formative actions (assessment for learning) [7,17]. Assessment plays a regulatory role in supporting formative actions. In this framework, assessment is defined as formative, and feedback is crucial, acting as a means for improving the teaching–learning process [18]. We will return to this concept in the following paragraphs.

Assessment has a dual formative function: for the teacher, it serves as a tool for monitoring, modifying, and adapting their teaching; for students, it offers specific, personalized, and timely feedback to improve their learning path.

In recognizing the learner centrality as an active participant in the learning processes, we move towards assessment as learning (AaL) [19], a subset of assessment for learning that sees the student’s involvement in the learning process. In this case, assessment emphasizes the development and support of metacognitive strategies that serve as a means to conduct a critical analysis of the learning progress and performance to develop reflective skills for greater awareness. Through reflection stimulated by the assessment, students become aware of their learning, connect it to previous knowledge, and use it to build new acquisitions. AaL often includes self-assessment practices and peer assessment. In this context, for each phase of an assignment, students can develop drafts, self-assess, and evaluate each other, and then revise their work in light of the feedback received and rubrics often built in the classroom.

When assessment meets real and future students’ learning needs, it is referred to as a sustainable assessment to be transferred into professional life [18,20].

This approach develops judgment skills and prepares students to become effective professionals. Sustainable assessment facilitates the activation of reflective processes and promotes a proactive posture in students. Not many experiences connect the evaluation dimension with the lifelong learning perspective, but sustainable assessment is placed precisely in this perspective.

This brief excursus, in addition to restoring the ineffectiveness of the exclusive use of summative assessment concerning the current needs of certifying skills, supporting ongoing learning, and valorizing resources, provides a framework for the various assessment instances that can be transferred to e-learning. These theoretical premises also serve as a theoretical framework for assessment in online learning contexts that combine multiple elements: technologies, tools/materials, and the actors involved.

3. Formative Assessment and Feedback Practices

Scriven [14] introduced the concept of formative evaluation, differentiating it from summative evaluation. Formative evaluation is implemented during teaching projects to improve the process, while summative evaluation assesses the overall effectiveness of the debated activities, emphasizing the results. Bloom, Hastings, and Madaus [21] transposed this distinction into the framework of Mastery learning. The formative evaluation of student learning provides corrective feedback to differentiate and individualize the teaching itineraries. In Italy, Vertecchi [3] implemented formative assessment to enhance student learning by gathering and utilizing evidence to evaluate their understanding. Formative assessment focuses on monitoring student progress to identify their needs and provide timely feedback to help them improve. In Inside the black box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment, Black and Wiliam [22] emphasize feedback. In 1999, the Assessment Reform Group used the expression assessment for learning to talk about formative assessment, emphasizing the focus on learning and distinguishing it from assessment of learning. Nonetheless, assessment for learning uses different approaches depending on the contextual factors that affect assessment practices. The assessment device to support learning must consider the intertwining of factors linked to the varied subjects and elements involved within the classroom (e.g., teacher, teaching team, students, resources) and outside, with an influence on it. For example, in a systematic review of the literature, Fulmer, Lee, and Tan [23] present a framework of factors that influence teachers’ assessment practice divided into contextual factors at the micro level (values, concepts, and knowledge) and contextual factors at the meso level (factors external to the classroom, but which have an immediate influence on it, e.g., factors linked to the school itself or the community of reference) and macro (broad national and cultural influences).

There is a close relationship between formative assessment and self-regulated learning. The construct of self-regulation, which includes cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, and emotional aspects, finds several convergences with the dynamics of formative assessment.

In the following paragraphs, an in-depth analysis will be provided on some central elements in assessment for learning such as the central role of feedback, the definition of objectives, and the use of strategies, as well as the articulation in cyclical phases, are points of intersection and mutual relationship between formative assessment and self-regulated learning.

3.1. Feedback

Formative feedback is a crucial element in the learning process, closely connected to assessment for learning. Formative feedback contributes to knowledge/skills development, intervening directly on the student’s performance to direct actions towards a shared goal. In a broad sense, feedback is identified with information transferred by an agent when the effect derived from a performance is reflected in the behavior itself, to vary or correct its functioning [24]. In the educational context, it is described as one of the main factors that affect the learning process, bringing about changes in the ways of doing or thinking by those who receive it for improvement.

According to various theoretical perspectives, formative feedback serves different functions. Bandura [25] defined feedback as a learning facilitator when it informs the subject about the correctness of a given response; Ausubel [26] highlighted its motivational power on subsequent learning when the subject receives confirmation of consolidated acquisitions and channels attention to any aspects to be improved.

Feedback can originate from different sources, such as teachers, peers, or the task. Its purpose is to help bridge the gap between a student’s current level and the learning objectives we aim to achieve. The aim is to reduce the gap between a student’s knowledge and the desired learning outcomes. The effectiveness of feedback depends not only on the information provided but also on how it is communicated. Feedback can be categorized into three levels of cognitive complexity: the task and product level, the process level, and the self-regulation level [27]. Task and product level: this type of feedback is the most frequent in classes and is often identified as corrective feedback. Usually, the teacher asks questions and comments on the tasks performed by individual students or in a collective mode. This feedback establishes a basis for self-regulation. Examples include marking answers as correct or incorrect, indicating when additional or different responses are needed, and offering more information about the task to enhance understanding. The process level: this type of feedback is directed at the processes of producing a product or completing a task. This feedback helps the student develop learning strategies and detect errors. Examples of this feedback include making explicit connections between ideas, offering strategies to help identify errors, and learning from them. Self-regulation level: this type of feedback monitors what students do in their learning processes. At this level, it can enhance students’ self-assessment skills, boost their confidence in completing tasks, and encourage them to seek and accept feedback. Some examples of this type of feedback are supporting students in seeking feedback and feeling confident in learning.

Effective formative feedback has the following characteristics: directive, when it refers to “what” to change to make corrections; facilitated, when it provides suggestions and information aimed at re-establishing action through the presentation of practical examples; effective, when it reduces the student’s cognitive load; and timely, when the cognitive load is low [7,28,29].

Formative feedback can act as scaffolding when it motivates interest, simplifies tasks, models expectations, outlines what and how to do to improve, and is goal-oriented, timely, continuous, clear, and exhaustive. It is appropriate to consider the appropriateness of the aids at the point in the process at which the students are.

On the contrary, feedback produces negative impacts when it takes on a controlling connotation, coincides with grades or judgments that label the performance, is not adequately explanatory, and creates inhibition and uncertainty. A teacher must consider some preconditions to provide effective formative feedback: the definition and sharing of objectives, the structure of students’ prior knowledge, and the development of metacognitive strategies to self-regulate learning.

Laurillard [30] provided a conversational reading of the teaching action, showing the essential role of formative feedback in the interaction between teacher and students and between peers. The learner can access the conceptual organization using extrinsic feedback (information, evaluative comments from the teacher, or other sources) and intrinsic feedback (derived from the consequences of personal actions) to reduce the discrepancy between understanding, performance, and objective. The teacher monitors the student’s activity to re-establish conceptual networks, activating a significant learning process marked by formative assessment and modeling.

3.2. Peer Feedback

Educational research has shown a growing interest in the quality of feedback, which determines its effectiveness on learning, and in the different types of feedback that influence the learning process differently. On the one hand, the negative impacts of traditional assessment practices on the quality of learning are highlighted, demonstrating how these can affect the students’ experience, the quality of their approach to studying, and learning outcomes. On the other hand, numerous research programs have demonstrated the effectiveness of active student involvement in assessment processes, leading to a revision of the traditional assessment and teacher feedback. It has become clear that feedback can be given by the teacher to the student, but also constructed collaboratively by students themselves, their peers, or about the context [31,32].

Peer feedback (PF) is an effective teaching practice that stimulates students’ assessment and self-assessment processes. This device enhances learning outcomes and fosters motivation and metacognitive regulation [33].

Evidence-based education supports the effectiveness of formative assessment. Empirical research on this topic is more numerous in the university setting, while in school, traditional assessment practices still prevail, where students have a passive role. On the contrary, the theoretical models of peer assessment, which are part of the perspective of social constructivism, consider learning as a process of co-construction and collaborative participation.

The added value of peer feedback lies in the student’s involvement in the feedback processing and group discussions to achieve a shared result. These activities enable students to evaluate their performance against their peers, identify knowledge gaps, and enhance the quality of feedback given. Furthermore, they foster the development of metacognitive regulation and evaluative judgment, which are crucial skills for life and career [34,35].

Designing peer-feedback activities connects formative assessment to sustainable assessment, preparing students to respond to their future needs. This approach guides students in developing skills to understand task requirements and meet standards, promoting success in both educational and professional contexts.

In the professional field, continuous feedback between colleagues and managers is essential to create an environment of learning and improvement. Some companies adopt multi-source feedback systems, based on peer feedback principles, to optimize the exchange of feedback.

Studies suggest that experience with peer assessment increases students’ willingness to provide and interpret constructive feedback, highlighting the need for curricula that include regular peer assessment activities [36,37].

Peer review is a key strategy in formative assessment that actively engages students as resources for mutual learning. It involves students reviewing each other’s work, providing suggestions for improvement, and receiving feedback from their peers. This process offers benefits for learning. Peer feedback tends to use language that is more accessible and familiar to students than teacher language. These traits more accurately represent the learning needs of students. Peer feedback is typically less prescriptive, promoting a meaningful learning process. It occurs more frequently, offering timely support that enhances the learning experience [20,38].

The dialogic process of continuous exchange and sharing between peers involves students in cycles of reviewing their assignments, constituting a reflection process, re-adaptation, and improvement. Peer assessment develops students’ evaluative skills, including judgment formation. Students perceive benefits in peer assessment of their work, and this process can contribute to improving the standard of their work [39]. Peer feedback encourages reflection on work and learning, allows students to analyze learning progress more effectively, fosters the development of transversal skills such as empathy, diplomacy, and assertiveness, promotes active attention and involvement, increases motivation, responsibility, and constructive competition in learning. Studies have also indicated that these practices, supported by rubrics, can predict students’ self-regulation [40,41].

Students view self-assessment and peer assessment as motivating tools that promote active attention and involvement. They also increase motivation, responsibility, and constructive competition in learning. Studies have also indicated that these practices, supported by rubrics, can predict students’ self-regulation.

4. The Relationship Between Formative Assessment and Self-Regulated Learning

Black and Wiliam [11,42] highlighted how self-regulated learning (SRL) should be a goal of formative assessment. Since then, research on understanding the relationship between formative assessment (FA) and self-regulated learning (SRL) has grown steadily.

Based on formative assessment, key strategies are identified, such as clarifying, sharing, and understanding the learning objectives and the criteria for achieving the outcome, often through the use of assessment rubrics; designing discussions, questions, and tasks that elicit evidence of learning; providing feedback to move students forward in learning; activating students, for example through self-assessment; activating students as resources for teaching and learning from each other, for example through peer assessment.

Various studies that have adopted a global approach have generally shown positive effects on improving students’ self-regulation skills [43]. For example, research by Chueachot, Srisa-ard, and Srihamongkol [44] found a significant increase in self-regulation skills in primary school students following an intervention based on an assessment for learning model. Another study by Weldmeskel and Michael [45] found that a “quality” formative assessment approach, including feedback, self-assessment, and peer assessment, significantly improved SRL ratings in university students.

A concept related to formative assessment is Assessment as Learning (AaL). This approach is valuable for enhancing students’ learning by developing metacognitive and self-regulation strategies. AaL encourages students to reflect on the information received through feedback, to make sense of their learning, and to use it to build new knowledge. Research conducted [46] with primary school students paid particular attention to self-assessment and peer assessment strategies, considering that the latter includes the others. The results indicated that students involved in peer assessment interventions outperformed the control group in self-regulation. Focus group analyzes showed that students developed more positive attitudes towards formative assessments as they gained experience with them. They felt more capable of effectively assessing themselves and their peers when the requirements, criteria, and standards were established and communicated. In higher education, peer assessment was tested to resolve challenging tasks and to develop disciplinary and transversal skills. The experience, conducted in an online environment due to the suspension of in-person teaching activities, involved students in moments of giving and receiving feedback. The students’ perception was extremely positive [47].

Peer assessment is one of the five formative assessment strategies for encouraging self-regulated learning. These strategies aim to activate students as mutual resources for teaching and learning. A study mentioned in the review implemented a formative assessment model that included peer assessment, in addition to sharing learning objectives, feedback, and self-assessment.

Peer assessment is another participatory assessment practice that can activate regulatory strategies. The experience of giving and receiving peer feedback was perceived positively by students, contributing to the deepening of the topics and reflection on the theory. Feedback is essential in formative assessment. To be effective, feedback must be direct, timely, and specific while including suggestions for improvement. The development of feedback literacy (FL), or literacy in feedback skills, is considered an important strategy to support future teachers in acquiring knowledge and skills related to assessment and evaluative judgment. FL paths can help students better understand the role of feedback, including negative feedback, and develop their skills in providing it. The assessment of peer work and the feedback process can enhance awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses, while also improving the ability to plan and adapt learning strategies.

This study [47] shows that peer assessment effectively activates students’ self-regulation strategies in a university-level distance learning context. This aligns with the previous discussion on self-regulation, suggesting that peer assessment can significantly enhance students’ ability to manage and direct their learning. Lastly, the role of the teacher is crucial for the success of formative assessment practices. Teachers have a significant impact on students’ self-regulation outcomes. When integrating formative assessment into teaching, it is essential to consider the characteristics and training of the educators involved.

5. Conclusions and Prospects

The review study highlights how formative assessment can significantly affect self-regulated learning. This can be achieved through a global approach that incorporates various key strategies (share learning objectives, Design discussions; Provide feedback; Activate students as learning agents (e.g., through self-assessment); Activate students as resources for teaching and learning from each other) and through an analytical approach that focuses on self-assessment using tools like rubrics and scripts [42,43]. Self-assessment, supported by scripts, showed particularly positive effects. Peer assessment also proved to be beneficial, being perceived as motivating and capable of promoting student attention and involvement.

Recent sources also provide information on students’ perceptions regarding the formative assessment practice. The AaL approach, which includes both self-assessment and peer assessment, is regarded as both useful and effective. Students recognize how these devices allow them to reflect on their shortcomings and improve their work through comparison. The feedback literacy path is viewed as valuable for encouraging self-reflection and enhancing the ability to provide meaningful feedback. However, students also highlighted difficulties related to the workload and time required for formative assessment activities.

A key aspect of developing future teachers’ assessment skills is the role of formative assessment. Sustainable assessment and Assessment as Learning (AaL) can help educators recognize the importance of assessments in the learning process. Additionally, the literature emphasizes the need to shift from a traditional approach focused on final products to practices like peer assessment, which encourage students to employ self-regulation strategies.

Strategies focused on self-regulation and sustainable learning have some unique features: (1) assessment practices create learning opportunities that extend beyond simply recalling and using prior knowledge; (2) students engage in activities that involve evaluative judgment, prompting reflection on the quality of their tasks and performance (such as through peer review). Integrating formative assessment is not just an extra task; it is a vital part of the teaching and learning process. This integration requires careful planning, observation, feedback, and adaptation, all of which take time [48].

Teachers must develop advanced skills in observing student performance, analyzing their responses, providing constructive and targeted feedback, and adapting their teaching in real time. If formative assessment is not well understood or integrated, teachers may view it as an additional burden, especially when faced with large class sizes and limited resources.

For formative assessment to be effective, students must actively engage in the learning process. They should reflect on their progress and use the feedback they receive to make improvements. Managing feedback can be challenging, so formative assessments should be closely aligned with learning goals in order to effectively monitor students’ progress.

Both teachers and students may initially be resistant to moving away from traditional assessment methods. Major challenges include time constraints, teachers’ perceived workload, changes in classroom assessment culture, and effective feedback management.

Addressing these challenges is essential to fully harness the benefits of formative assessment in enhancing student learning. In conclusion, formative assessment is confirmed as a powerful tool to promote student learning and self-regulation. Approaches such as sustainable assessment and assessment as learning, integrated with a solid competence in feedback and implemented through authentic tasks, can significantly enrich teaching practices. For these reasons, adequate training is needed to consider assessment as an integral part of teaching design and not as a final and exclusive teacher’s moment.

In conclusion, formative assessment is confirmed as a powerful tool to promote student learning and self-regulation. Approaches such as sustainable assessment and Assessment as Learning, integrated with solid feedback literacy and implemented through authentic tasks, can significantly enrich teaching practices. It is crucial to consider the workload perceived by students and to explore the most effective ways to integrate these practices into the curriculum, including future teachers’ training.