Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Issue 1 (March 2025) – 40 articles

In vivo dosimetry (IVD) is a vital component of modern radiotherapy, ensuring accurate and safe delivery of radiation doses to patients by measuring dose parameters during treatment. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of IVD, covering its fundamental principles, historical development, and the technologies used in clinical practice. Key techniques, including thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), optically stimulated luminescent dosimeters (OSLDs), diodes, metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), and electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs), are discussed, highlighting their clinical applications, advantages, and limitations. The role of IVD in external beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy, and pediatric treatments is emphasized, particularly its contributions to quality assurance, treatment validation, and error mitigation. Challenges such as measurement uncertainties, technical constraints, and integration into clinical workflows are explored, along with potential solutions and emerging innovations. The paper also addresses future perspectives, including advancements in artificial intelligence, adaptive radiotherapy, and personalized dosimetry systems. This entry underscores the critical role of IVD in enhancing the precision and reliability of radiotherapy, advocating for ongoing research and technological development. Full article

The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) is a strategic management framework introduced by Kaplan and Norton in 1992 to address the limitations of traditional performance measurement systems. It integrates financial and non-financial performance measures across four perspectives—financial, customer, internal processes, and learning and growth. Over three decades, the BSC has evolved into a comprehensive strategic tool adopted across industries and sectors worldwide. While its adaptability and integrative approach are strengths, criticisms include challenges in implementation, assumed cause–effect relationships, and relevance in decentralized organizations. Future research should investigate cultural adaptation; the incorporation of environmental, social, and governance metrics; and advancements driven by artificial intelligence to maintain ongoing relevance. Full article

Radiolysis of water and aqueous solutions refers to the decomposition of water and its solutions under exposure to ionizing radiation, such as γ-rays, X-rays, accelerated particles, or fast neutrons. This exposure leads to the formation of highly reactive species, including free radicals like hydroxyl radicals (^●OH), hydrated electrons (e⁻_aq), and hydrogen atoms (H^●), as well as molecular products like molecular hydrogen (H₂) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). These species may further react with each other or with solutes in the solution. The yield and behavior of these radiolytic products depend on various factors, including pH, radiation type and energy, dose rate, and the presence of dissolved solutes such as oxygen or ferrous ions, as in the case of the ferrous sulfate (Fricke) dosimeter. Aqueous radiation chemistry has been pivotal for over a century, driving advancements in diverse fields, including nuclear science and technology—particularly in water-cooled reactors—radiobiology, bioradical chemistry, radiotherapy, food preservation, wastewater treatment, and the long-term management of nuclear waste. This field is also vital for understanding radiation effects in space. Full article

The deployment of virtual machines (VMs) within the Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) layer across public, private, or hybrid cloud infrastructures is prevalent in various organisational settings for hosting essential business services. However, achieving rapid elasticity, or autoscaling, and ensuring quality of service amidst fluctuating service demands and available computing resources present significant challenges. Unlike the Platform as a Service (PaaS) and Software as a Service (SaaS) layers, where cloud providers offer managed elasticity features, the VMs at the IaaS layer often lack such capabilities. This paper scrutinises the constraints surrounding the rapid elasticity of VMs within single and hybrid cloud environments at the IaaS layer. It provides a critical analysis of the existing research gaps, emphasising the necessity for the horizontal elasticity of VMs extended across hybrid clouds, coupled with predictive capabilities integrated into the elasticity mechanism. This paper’s focus is particularly beneficial in scenarios where workloads require VM provisioning from multiple clouds to eliminate vendor lock-in and enhance quality of service (QoS) assurances, especially in instances of platform failures. Through critical examination, several research challenges are identified, delineating the existing research gap and outlining future research directions. This paper contributes to the research challenges of VM elasticity in complex cloud environments and underscores the imperative for innovative solutions to address these challenges effectively. Full article

Citizen developers, individuals outside formal IT departments who create applications using low-code/no-code platforms, are becoming increasingly pivotal as organizations navigate digital transformation. The driving force behind this paradigm shift stems from an exponentially growing demand for software solutions that consistently outpaces traditional IT departments’ capacity. Consequently, companies are turning their attention toward citizen developers, entrusting them with crafting solutions. In this work, we perform a systematic review of the existing literature to unearth the pivotal themes and subthemes and identify the factors contributing to citizen developers’ effectiveness. Our systematic review revealed a significant gap in scholarly understanding of factors contributing to citizen developers’ effectiveness. While some studies touched on these factors, none explored them comprehensively or provided an integrated framework for understanding their interrelationships. To fill this void, we propose a conceptual model to advance the understanding of the factors that influence the effectiveness of citizen developers in creating applications. While the model contributes to the theoretical understanding of citizen development, practical implications further reinforce its value. By leveraging the model, organizations can make informed decisions to enhance the productivity of citizen developers, align digital transformation strategies, and foster innovation. Full article

As a consequence of the European Union introducing the prohibition of supplying antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) in diets in 2006, antibiotic alternatives for poultry feed have become one of the most central issues. In general, probiotics and prebiotics are highly effective additives that improve host health and prevent pathogen colonization by modulating immune functions, altering the intestinal microecology, and enhancing digestion. However, the specific situations in which probiotics or prebiotics should be used still require further research. In addition, the advanced applications of probiotics and prebiotics, such as in ovo injection, also need to be investigated to improve the host performance. In the following review, we summarize various probiotic and prebiotic supplementation methods and compare the specific conditions for their use to improve poultry production management. Full article

This entry describes high school science course taking in the United States (U.S.). High school science course taking refers to the selection, enrollment, and completion of science-related coursework during grades nine through twelve. It encompasses both the timing, quantity, and the rigor (or level of challenge) of science courses. Science course taking in high school includes both foundational or core courses like biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science. Students may also take advanced science courses such as Advanced Placement (AP), (International Baccalaureate (IB), career and technical education (CTE) or applied, and dual credit or dual enrollment science courses. Some advanced courses meet core course requirements (e.g., AP Physics). This entry focuses on core science course taking, and the distinction between core or advanced core is beyond its scope. A discussion of CTE and dual credit or dual enrollment science course taking is also beyond the entry’s scope. The significant variability in core high school science course taking and historic unequal distribution of opportunities highlights the need for ongoing monitoring of factors influencing course taking to promote equity in access and outcomes. This entry presents a brief history of standards and graduation requirements surrounding high school science course taking, then briefly reviews science course pathways classifications and current trends in course enrollment and completion. A review of current trends in the context of historical developments can help the high school science education policy and practice field take stock of some of the factors that influence current patterns. The entry is written with a lens towards broadening participation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields and equity. Full article

The individual, as found primarily in modern Western civilization, is defined as “the independent, autonomous and thus (essentially) nonsocial moral being”, “the rational being” who is “the normative subject of institutions”. This is the definition of the individual we adhere to in this text. This text delves into the intricate dimensions of the concept of the individual by exploring the theological foundations inherent in Western thought. Rooted in Max Weber’s assertion regarding the theological meanings of Man’s self-perception, the entry emphasizes the pivotal role of theological understandings in shaping the concept of the individual. Focusing on the influence of Christian perspectives on the development of the concept of the individual, the article traces the historical entwining of theology and the concept of Man between antiquity and medieval times. Full article

Australia’s older population from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds presents unique challenges for aged care and public policy due to their varied migration histories, cultural practices, and language barriers. This essay explores the demographic trends, historical migration perspectives, intergenerational dynamics, and health system interactions among older CALD Australians. Cultural nuances significantly influence attitudes towards caregiving, independence, and aged care, highlighting the necessity for culturally competent care models. Policies like the National Ageing and Aged Care Strategy emphasize inclusion, empowerment, and culturally appropriate service delivery. Key challenges include combating ageism, addressing healthcare access disparities, and fostering community engagement. Effective strategies involve culturally tailored interventions, enhanced communication, and proactive policy frameworks. The findings underscore the importance of a collaborative approach between communities, healthcare providers, and policymakers to ensure equitable and inclusive care for CALD populations, promoting dignity, well-being, and cultural preservation among Australia’s diverse elderly communities. Full article

“Mega-events” are characterized as expansive cultural gatherings. They include both sporting and commercial elements, and they collectively exert significant global influence and appeal. “Sporting mega-events”, in particular, represent a central component of such gatherings and serve as key expressions of national soft power on the world stage. “Soft power” encompasses practices and behaviors aimed at cultivating relational capital, and according to Nye, effective soft power strategies rely on streamlined processes and a blend of tangible and intangible resources to communicate influence, negotiate power, and achieve desired outcomes. In the context of sporting mega-events, soft power operates through cooperation and the alignment of shared interests rather than coercion, thereby appealing to international audiences, and governments therefore strategically host these events to enhance their global standing and secure diplomatic and economic benefits. Full article

This review paper examines how Generative AI (GAI) and Large Language Models (LLMs) can transform smart cities in the Industry 5.0 era. Through selected case studies and portions of the literature, we analyze these technologies’ impact on industrial processes and urban management. The paper targets GAI as an enabler for industrial optimization and predictive maintenance, underlining how domain experts can work with LLMs to improve municipal services and citizen communication, while addressing the practical and ethical challenges in deploying these technologies. We also highlight promising trends, as reflected in real-world case studies ranging from factories to city-wide test-beds and identify pitfalls to avoid. Widespread adoption of GAI still faces challenges that include infrastructure and lack of specialized knowledge as a limitation of proper implementation. While LLMs enable new services for citizens in smart cities, they also expose certain privacy issues, which we aim to investigate in this study. Finally, as a way forward, the paper suggests future research directions covering new ethical AI frameworks and long-term studies on societal impacts. Our paper is a starting point for industrial pioneers and urban developers to navigate the complexity of GAI and LLM integration, balancing the demands of technological innovation on one hand and ethical responsibility on the other. Full article

A health care approach that involves service users in decisions concerning their own health. It considers service users’ beliefs, values, support system, and experiences in co-creating an action plan to address their distinct health care goal [this is de novo based on diverse publications about person-centered care]. Full article

To understand the topic of old age in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, we can draw much information from relevant literary texts among other sources because the poets operated with general notions commonly subscribed to by their audiences. Old people appear in many different roles already in the pre-modern world, but here the focus will rest mostly on worthy, dignified, mighty, and even ferocious old warriors in heroic poetry. Those stand out because of their strength, their knowledge, their resolve, their wisdom, and their extensive and varied abilities, but this does not automatically mean that they were flawless. To round off this entry, the attention will finally turn to remarkable examples of old but highly respected people in the verse narratives by the German poet Heinrich Kaufringer, in Boccaccio’s Decameron, a harbinger of the Italian Renaissance, in Christine de Pizan’s didactic writings, and in the Old Norse Njál’s Saga. Full article

This review explores the current state of public key cryptography based on idempotent semirings, with an emphasis on tropical semirings. It examines key hard problems, such as the tropical discrete logarithm problem, semidirect tropical product problem, the factorization of tropical polynomials, and the matrix power function, that underpin the security of these protocols. Given the significant number of compromised protocols based on tropical semirings, most of which are variations of the Stickel protocol, we present three algorithms and classify schemes of this type. The analysis is further illustrated with a figure that maps the relationships between tropical Stickel’s-like protocols and the attacks targeting them. Additionally, the review provides an in-depth exploration of the vulnerabilities that have led to many tropical semiring-based cryptosystems being compromised. To address these challenges, the review highlights promising alternative approaches, including non-tropical idempotent platforms and non-idempotent options, such as supertropical semirings, which offer potential solutions to overcome known limitations. Furthermore, a discussion on the interplay between tropical cryptography and post-quantum cryptography is presented, raising the following question: what is the future of tropical cryptography? Full article

This entry examines the critical issue of misinformation within online learning environments following the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on its types, spread, and consequences. It identifies key drivers of misinformation, such as reliance on unverified sources, limited media literacy, and emotional susceptibility during uncertainty. The entry analyses the effects of misinformation on students, educators, and the broader educational ecosystem, including behavioral disorders, reduced motivation, and misinformation-driven public anxiety. To address these challenges, the entry proposes strategies such as enhancing digital literacy, fostering critical thinking, and encouraging social interaction in virtual learning spaces. Ultimately, this work aims to equip educators, policymakers, and stakeholders with insights to develop a resilient, informed, and equitable post-pandemic educational framework. Full article

The occurrence of human resource churning results in financial, time and effort losses for organisations, which creates a problem for organisations that lose the most experienced human resources that they have invested in training. The human resources that leave organisations are known as churners. Churning is the costly, time-consuming and difficult process of replacing workers who have left voluntarily. Given the multiplicity of definitions attributed to the subject of churning, we follow the approach that human resource churning is a component of turnover, which is related to analysing the costs associated with voluntary departures. As a result of this problem, this entry was created with the aim of theoretically explaining the effects that the churning of human resources has on organisations of origin. In order to meet this objective, various topics are covered with the aim of characterising churners, their backgrounds and their aspirations, referring to the effect of the mobility of human resources on organisations, in other words, the effect of churning on organisations and the urgent need for action. Full article

Educational technologies refer to the set of digital tools, resources, applications, and methodologies used to facilitate the teaching–learning process. These technologies include software, online platforms, hardware devices (such as tablets, computers, and interactive whiteboards), and, if one wants to give special relevance, as it should be these days, to the issue of inclusion in education, assistive technologies, all aimed at improving access to education, personalizing learning paths, and fostering a more dynamic interaction between students and teachers. This entry explores the integration of educational technologies, highlighting their role in enhancing the teaching–learning process, promoting inclusive and personalized education. It analyses the pedagogical implications of the use of digital technologies, including assistive technologies (which foster learning in a Universal Design for Learning perspective), and the need to train competent teachers to adopt innovative teaching practices. This entry concludes by emphasizing the importance of a shared commitment to prepare future generations for a technologically changing world by creating more dynamic and accessible learning environments, including through virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence. Full article

The anthropology of food is a sub-field of cultural anthropology interested in studying food and foodways. This article provides a concise overview of the anthropology of food, tracing its development from the early twentieth century to contemporary debates and emerging research trajectories. Drawing on foundational work by figures such as Boas and Malinowski, it shows how early anthropologists approached food as integral to understanding social organization, kinship, and cultural meaning. As the field evolved, structuralist, materialist, feminist, and political-economic perspectives broadened its scope, highlighting the symbolic significance of cuisine, the interplay between environment and subsistence, and the pivotal role of gender and class in shaping food practices. In recent decades, the anthropology of food has engaged intensively with globalization, investigating how transnational flows reshape culinary identities, local economies, and cultural heritage, as well as other significant topics. At the same time, emerging themes—such as multispecies perspectives, sensory studies, and the application of innovative methodologies—offer new lenses for understanding how food mediates relationships between humans, non-human beings, and environments. By examining case studies spanning regions from Africa and Asia to Europe and the Americas, this article illustrates how contemporary anthropologists use food as a prism to investigate cultural identity, social change, ethical relations, and the complex entanglements of local and global food systems. Full article

A conceptual exploration of contrasting psychological phenomena—overconfidence, as exemplified by the Dunning–Kruger Effect (DKE), and self-doubt, represented by impostor syndrome—within organizational contexts. It examines how these biases shape individual behavior, team dynamics, and organizational performance, highlighting the interplay between competence miscalibration and the undervaluation of one’s skills. The article further explores the societal, psychological, and familial origins of these syndromes, proposing implications for leadership and workplace productivity. Full article

Each battery cell consists of three main components: the anode, the cathode, and the separator soaked with liquid electrolyte, the medium in the battery that allows charged ions to move between the two electrodes. Besides a wide electrochemical stability window and good compatibility with both electrodes, the electrolyte should also be safe, thermally stable and environmentally benign, showing a high ionic conductivity of the charge-carrying Li ions and finally a low price. This unique combination of properties is impossible to achieve with a simple salt–solvent mixture and usually requires a combination of different electrolyte components, i.e., several liquid solvents and additives and one or more conducting salt(s). For lithium-based batteries, which are the most common electrochemical energy storage devices today, a solution based on lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆) in a mixture of organic carbonates as the solvent is used. Usually, the conducting salt concentrations used for lithium-based electrolytes are in the range of ≈1 to 1.2 M, but recently, electrolytes with much higher conducting salt concentrations of 5 M and even over 10 M have been investigated as they offer several benefits ranging from increased safety to a broadened electrochemical stability window, thus enabling cheap and safe solvents, even water. Full article

The term “urban planning for the contemporary age” describes the process of creating and overseeing urban areas to meet the many complex issues of the current times, such as social justice, climate change, growing urbanisation, and technological advancement. It places a strong emphasis on flexible, inclusive, and progressive approaches that strike a balance between sustainable development and the changing demands of various urban populations. Urban planning, particularly in the contemporary age, is a multidisciplinary discipline that tackles the complexity of contemporary cities that is influenced by social injustices, fast urbanisation, climate change, and technology breakthroughs. This entry paper examines how planners deal with these issues by using flexible, inclusive, and sustainable approaches that strike a balance between community well-being, environmental conservation, and growth. It looks at important topics including incorporating smart technology, building climate impact resilience, and creating inclusive, accessible, and egalitarian urban environments. The conflict between tradition and modernisation is also highlighted in the chapter, underscoring the necessity of creative solutions that protect cultural legacy while meeting contemporary needs. By examining global trends, this study offers insights into how urban planning is changing to satisfy the demands of a dynamic and connected society. The study used a literature review to identify the main areas that are influencing innovation in urban planning. It then delves into discussions on contemporary issues and complexities in shaping urban futures. The main research methods were a literature review and empirical analysis. In the end, it makes the case for rethinking urban futures with an emphasis on resilience, sustainability, and the welfare and well-being of urban residents. Full article

The Likert-type scale is a widely used psychometric instrument for measuring attitudes, opinions, or perceptions in research contexts. It presents respondents with a series of statements accompanied by symmetrical response options, typically structured on a five-point scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree”. Each point on the scale represents a gradation of agreement or sentiment, allowing researchers to transform subjective responses into quantifiable data for statistical analysis and interpretation. Full article

This entry explores the financial impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the football industry, highlighting the challenges, adaptations, and long-term implications for clubs across all levels. It examines the industry’s financial fragility, particularly for clubs reliant on matchday revenue, while showcasing adaptive strategies such as digital engagement, government support, and revenue diversification that sustained operations during the crisis. The pandemic exposed structural vulnerabilities within football, from elite clubs to grassroots teams, through revenue shortfalls caused by closed stadiums, cancelled matches, and reduced sponsorships. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the pandemic’s effects on revenue streams, fixed costs, player contracts, and stakeholder roles, offering insights into strategies that promote financial resilience. Case studies illustrate how elite, semi-professional, and grassroots clubs responded to financial and operational challenges, emphasising the importance of diversified income sources, proactive financial planning, and community support. By identifying lessons from the pandemic, the entry underscores the critical need for sustainable practises and resilient models to prepare the football industry for future disruptions. Full article

Poverty is an important social determinant of health disparities across the lifespan. Poverty also influences other life challenges such as pecuniary instability, food insecurity, housing instability, educational inequality, and limited career mobility. According to the World Bank, more than 700 million people worldwide live in global poverty, surviving on less than USD 2.15 a day. Poverty may also be viewed as a state of deprivation that limits access to resources that address basic needs (i.e., food, water, shelter, clothing, health), limiting an individual’s opportunity to participate optimally in society. A large body of research has identified a positive relationship between poverty and chronic health concerns such as heart disease, diabetes, high cholesterol, kidney problems, liver problems, cancer, and hypertension. This entry examines health disparities associated with economic status, discrimination, racism, stress, age, race/ethnicity, gender, gender identity, and nationality from a social justice perspective. Full article

The kidney, a complex organ crucial for a multitude of homeostatic functions, including the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance, removal of various metabolic waste products, and hormone production, undergoes intricate developmental processes to form functional nephron units. Understanding the mechanisms behind kidney development is paramount for elucidating the etiology of renal congenital disabilities and acquired diseases. The Hippo pathway is known for its involvement in various cellular functions, including cell fate determination and differentiation, and is a critical player in renal organogenesis. Here, we discuss research findings about the roles that Hippo signaling plays in kidney formation. Full article

Clinical reasoning is an essential competence of veterinary graduands. Unfortunately, clinical reasoning and, therefore, the quality of provided veterinary medical services are prone to bias, difficulties, and errors. The literature on biases, difficulties, and errors in clinical reasoning in veterinary medical education is scarce or focused on theoretical rather than practical application. In this review, we address the practicality of learning and teaching biases, difficulties, and errors in clinical reasoning to veterinary learners utilizing a practical example of a cow with a prolapsed uterus complicated by hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia. Learners should be guided through all of the stages of clinical reasoning as much as possible under direct supervision. The common clinical biases, difficulties, or errors in veterinary medical encounters may differ between stages of development of the learner, with more difficulties occurring in earlier stages (Observer, Reporter, ±Interpreter) but more heuristic biases occurring at later stages (Manager, Educator, ±Interpreter). However, clinical errors may occur at any learner development stage. Therefore, remediation of clinical biases, difficulties, and errors in veterinary medical encounters should use strategies that are tailored to the level of development of the learner, but also to the specific encounter (e.g., client, patient, and context). Full article

This entry explores the emergence of ONE Paleopathology as a holistic, interdisciplinary approach to understanding health through deep time. The entry discusses key areas where paleopathological research provides crucial insights: animals as sentinels of environmental health, the evolution and transmission of infectious diseases, the impacts of urbanization and pollution on human health, and the effects of climate change on disease patterns. Special attention is given to case studies involving malaria, tuberculosis, and environmental toxicity, demonstrating how past human–environment interactions inform current health strategies. The entry also emphasizes the importance of indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) systems in understanding and managing health challenges, highlighting how traditional ecological knowledge complements scientific approaches. By bridging past and present, ONE Paleopathology offers valuable perspectives for addressing modern health challenges in the context of accelerating environmental change, while promoting more equitable and sustainable approaches to global health. Full article

Media Education is an educational discipline focused on critical and conscious engagement with media and their languages. Regarded as complex cultural artifacts, it serves as a preparatory phase aimed at developing interpretative and critical skills regarding the media themselves. The objective is to promote a deep understanding of media as cultural and social phenomena, emphasizing that they are not merely technical tools but carriers of meanings and values that shape perceptions of reality and identity formation. This entry explores the evolution of Media Education, from the 1982 UNESCO Grünwald Declaration to recent international initiatives, highlighting the role of the Media Educator as a facilitator in integrating digital technologies into educational contexts. Key aspects include the rejection of an “apocalyptic” vision of the new media (quoting Umberto Eco), the focus on media as carriers of meaning, and the promotion of critical and creative skills essential for navigating the complexities of contemporary digital culture. Full article

This entry examines the growing role of artificial intelligence (AI) in special education. The authors discuss applications of AI in the field, including its uses for personalized learning, adaptive technologies, teacher support, and AI’s potential to address issues related to student accessibility and engagement. The entry draws on recent syntheses of literature, highlighting studies that reveal AI’s capacity to improve educational outcomes for students with disabilities, mitigate teacher workload, and foster inclusion. Despite these promising developments, the authors address ethical considerations, potential biases, and privacy concerns surrounding the use of AI, as well as the need for high-quality research that validates AI’s effectiveness in special education. The authors conclude that while AI can offer substantial support, it should be integrated thoughtfully, guided by empirical research, and accompanied by skilled professional oversight to ensure that it truly benefits students with disabilities. Full article