Nudging Eco-Tourism Behaviour Through Tourist Experience Satisfaction: Examining the Mediating and Moderating Mechanisms of Destination Bonds and Ecocentrism

Abstract

The rapid expansion of the tourism sector has raised concerns about how to provide satisfaction to visitors while preserving the environment, especially at tourism destinations that are trying to be sustainable. This study, based on Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) and Place attachment theory, investigates how tourism experience satisfaction predicts eco-tourism behaviour through destination bond while moderating the relationship between tourism experience satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour via ecocentrism. A stratified random sampling technique was employed to capture a diverse representation of tourists visiting eco-heritage destinations. A total of 420 valid responses were retained after thorough screening for completeness and reliability. The final dataset was analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to evaluate both the measurement and structural relationships in the proposed model. The findings indicate that tourism experience satisfaction creates significant destination bonds, which lead to eco-tourism behaviour. Both destination attachment and dependence contribute significantly to eco-tourism behaviour, indicating they both play a mediation role. Furthermore, ecocentrism positively moderates the relationship between satisfaction and eco-behaviour, demonstrating that tourists with stronger ecological value orientations are more likely to translate satisfaction into responsible environmental action. Theoretically, the study contributes to the VBN and place attachment theory by acknowledging the role of attachment and dependence as important belief processes enabling the interacting of experiential fulfilment to moral engagement, and by finding ecocentrism to be a dynamic moderator. To the policy makers, destination managers and community stakeholders, the findings provide a behavioural model of enabling the process of stewardship using experiential design based on values and participative-based conservation initiatives.

1. Introduction

Tourism is widely viewed as one of the most dynamic sectors worldwide, generating economic benefit, facilitating cross-cultural exchange, and promoting greater environmental stewardship. As tourism markets grow, though, so does the pressure on natural resources, cultural heritage sites, and surrounding ecosystems. In countries experiencing rapid development, such as China, the rising number of international and domestic tourists creates challenges to balancing economic growth and tourism with environmental sustainability (Irfan et al., 2023; Kong et al., 2025). Although tourism growth is widely celebrated, a persistent and poorly defined issue remains: many visitors enjoy meaningful and satisfying experiences at destinations, yet this does not consistently translate into responsible environmental behaviour (Gezhi & Xiang, 2022; S. Wang et al., 2024). This behavioural gap limits the effectiveness of sustainability policies and weakens destination-level conservation efforts. The present study therefore seeks to clarify the underlying psychological problem why positive tourism experiences fail to activate pro-environmental action and to identify the value-based mechanisms through which satisfaction may (or may not) evolve into eco-tourism behaviour.

This study addresses this issue by exploring the psychological and experiential mechanisms influencing eco-tourism behaviour, specifically the relationship of tourism experience satisfaction, destination attachment and dependence with environmentally responsible behaviour using a Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) theoretical framework (P. C. Stern et al., 1999). While several behavioural frameworks such as the Theory of Planned Behavior (Sampene et al., 2022; Vo et al., 2024) and the Norm Activation Model (Elsamen et al., 2025; Meng et al., 2020) have been applied to sustainability studies, they primarily explain intention formation rather than the deeper value-driven processes that convert experience into moral obligation. The VBN framework was therefore selected because it uniquely captures how experiential satisfaction activates ecological values, beliefs, and personal norms, making it better suited for explaining the transformation of tourist experiences into eco-tourism behaviour. This theoretical positioning provides a more coherent foundation for analyzing value-based behavioural pathways within eco-heritage settings.

Identifying and measuring our psychological mechanisms adds valuable evidence to this urgent global issue of facilitating sustainable tourism behaviours with respect to responsible consumption and production (SDG 12) and environmental protection (SDG 13) (Tehseen et al., 2024). As a result, tourism destinations have started to shift from mass-tourism models toward eco-centric models’ inclusiveness (Buhalis et al., 2023; Sorcaru et al., 2024) that promote low-carbon practices, conservation consciousness, and community inclusiveness. Due to its commitment to both economic modernization and ecological civilization, China is an important site for examining this transformation. Programmes supporting sustainable tourism, such as “Beautiful China”, exemplify the government’s agenda of sustainable tourism development, while research suggests that our understanding only goes so far into tourists’ mental processes when they are behaving in an environmentally responsible manner (Qin et al., 2024). Aspects of the previous literature have focused on structural determinants such as public policies, infrastructure, and marketing policies, without consideration for how individual values and beliefs can legitimize the satisfaction of tourists into environmental action (Hassan et al., 2024; M. J. Kim et al., 2024).

Therefore, this study addresses the theoretical gap by examining how tourism experience satisfaction functions as an antecedent to value-based belief formation through the development of emotional attachment and dependence bonds with eco-heritage destinations within the place attachment theory (Kyle et al., 2003; Ramkissoon et al., 2013). Rather than viewing satisfaction as a simple post-consumption reaction, the current study conceptualizes it as a catalyst that shapes tourists’ cognitive evaluations of a destination’s meaning, relevance, and irreplaceability key appraisals shown to strengthen pro-environmental tendencies (Ladeira et al., 2016). This interpretation is consistent with the VBN theory, which argues that pro-environmental behaviour arises when situational or experiential cues activate underlying ecological values and convert them into personal moral norms that guide action (P. Stern, 2000; Han et al., 2023). Moreover, attachment- and dependence-based bonds provide the psychological conditions through which tourists’ pre-existing ecological values become more saliently interpreted and behaviorally expressed, allowing these stable values to guide personal norms and encourage eco-tourism behaviour without implying that satisfaction itself activates or alters underlying values (Ramkissoon et al., 2013). The study moves beyond descriptive accounts of tourism satisfaction toward a more explanatory framework that links experiential fulfilment with value-driven behavioural processes in eco-heritage destinations.

There continues to be a growing body of literature on sustainable tourism (Buhalis et al., 2023; Matijová et al., 2023); however, limited research has undertaken a systematic examination of how experiential satisfaction translates into eco-tourism behaviour and is grounded in psychological mechanisms such as attachment and dependence. While previous investigations have confirmed that satisfaction predicts loyalty or intention to return (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2023; Suban, 2025), few studies have considered the moral and environmental considerations. In addition, much of the eco-tourism research in China has been aimed at either a policy review or environmental awareness, while little attention has been paid to tourists’ intrinsic motivations (Han et al., 2023; Y. Huang & Liang, 2024). Relatedly, these multiple research gaps culminate in an absence of integrated models that unify the emotional and cognitive elements of bonding to a destination outcome in moral behaviour. The aim of this study is to examine how tourism experience satisfaction influences eco-tourism behaviour through destination attachment and destination dependence, and to assess whether ecocentrism strengthens this behavioural pathway. Based on these objectives, the following research questions are formulated to guide the investigation:

(1) In what way does the experience of satisfaction associated with tourism shape tourists’ emotional and functional ties with destinations established within the context of eco-heritage tourism in China?

(2) How do destination attachment and destination dependence act as mediators in the relationship between satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour?

(3) What is the moderating role of ecocentrism in the association between satisfaction and pro-environmental behaviour, specifically in contributing to moral engagement?

These triad questions serve to unpack the different, but interrelated, components of cognitive appraisal, emotional identification, and moral activation in sustainable tourism behaviour.

This study adds value beyond being an academic novelty, but also offers practical implications to destination managers, policymakers, and sustainable tourism practitioners. The first one is that by defining that satisfaction, attachment and dependence are important behavioural levers, it means that eco-friendly behaviour can be motivated by using experience design and value-based communication. Second, to the policymakers, an insight into the psychological processes that translate experience into behaviour will give them evidence-based logic for formulating campaigns that will enhance environmental stewardship by tourists. Third, to the managers, the study is that establishing emotional bonds with the tourists and satisfying the functional needs will eventually strengthen the loyalty, besides encouraging ecological responsibility. With this, the concerned behaviours presented in the study reflect a chance to create long-term resilience in tourism ecosystems by means of self-regulation behaviours as opposed to the nudge policy.

Regarding methodology, the present research presupposes a proper analytical strategy of mixed nature based on structural equation modelling (SEM). Analysis of mediation and moderation not only tests the direct and indirect relationship between satisfaction and eco-behaviour empirically, but also gives a more comprehensive view of the interaction of satisfaction and belief formation to give normative results based on satisfaction. Such a methodological design supports the validity of the study and gives it a theoretical background and empirical support for its findings. The novelty of the present research consists of showing how ecocentrism is an antecedent and a moderator, which increases the moral translation of satisfaction to behaviour. Also, the dual nature of emotional cognition of the tourist decision making is captured by modelling destination attachment and dependence simultaneously. The conceptual balance to what has often appeared to be a theoretical literature of affective or cognitive explanations is provided by this dual-bond model on a conceptual level, sometimes singly. The case of empirical sub-substantiation in the setting of eco-tourism destination in China helps to give meaning to the generalizability of the model process because it offers economic growth and environmental integrity that gives meaning to the resident-tourist satisfaction and eco-behaviour outcomes.

The findings of this study have significant implications for formulating sustainable tourism policies that advocate for education, interpretation, and participatory experiences that utilize intrinsic motivation to care for nature. The findings show that tourists’ moral considerations can be raised to a new level of experience satisfaction aligned with their environmental values without being dependent on regulatory extrinsic means. For destination managers, developing interpretive programmes connecting environmental stewardship to personally meaningful experiences turns tourism into an approach to co-preserving the environment instead of passive consumption. This promotes the founding ideas of broader governance strategies for the environment in China and takes part in the larger conversation of sustainable behaviour. This research provides evidence that responsible tourism stems from the development of intra-moral awareness to desired environmental behaviours, which is more viable than comparatively more durable compliance-based public policy frameworks.

Structurally, Section 2 develops the hypothesis and conceptual model; Section 3 presents the methodology and sampling, measurement and analytical procedures; Section 4 presents empirical results, including reliability and validity results, and results of hypothesis testing; and Section 5 discusses empirical results in relation to theory, recent evidence, and policy relevance. Section 5 concludes with implications for theory, practice, and future research directions.

2. Theoretical Basis and Hypothesis Development

2.1. Theoretical Basis

The VBN framework P. C. Stern et al. (1999) remains one of the most influential models for explaining pro-environmental behaviour. It posits that stable value orientations such as biospheric, altruistic, and egoistic values, shape specific environmental beliefs, namely Awareness of Consequences (AC), Ascription of Responsibility (AR), and perceived ability or efficacy (P. C. Stern et al., 1999). These beliefs subsequently activate personal moral norms, which function as the proximal determinants of pro-environmental and pro-social action (He et al., 2024). Importantly, values in the VBN system are conceptualized as deeply internalized, enduring dispositions that are not shaped or altered by situational experiences such as tourism satisfaction (Landon et al., 2018).

In line with this theoretical clarity, the present study does not treat tourism experience satisfaction as part of the value stage or as a process of “value activation.” Instead, satisfaction is conceptualized as a situational experiential appraisal, which may influence how individuals interpret or express their existing value orientations through destination-related cognitions and personal norms, but it cannot modify the values themselves (Zheng et al., 2023). This aligns with prior VBN research emphasizing that experiences influence belief salience, not value formation (Groot & Thøgersen, 2018). Furthermore, destination attachment and destination dependence are not classified as belief constructs within the VBN framework. VBN Beliefs refer specifically to AC, AR, and perceived responsibility or capacity—cognitive assessments related to environmental consequences, responsibility attribution, and efficacy (P. Stern, 2000). Emotional attachment and functional dependence, by contrast, are sub-dimensions of place attachment theory (Kyle et al., 2003; Kyle et al., 2005) and represent affective and functional bonds with a setting. These constructs do not substitute for, or conceptually overlap with, VBN beliefs.

In this study, place attachment functions as a contextual psychological mechanism that may influence how tourists articulate or enact the value–belief–norm chain in eco-heritage settings. Attachment and dependence help explain why tourists emotionally value a destination or rely on its functional attributes, which may intensify the behavioural expression of their pre-existing ecological values (M. Kim & Koo, 2020). However, they do not operate within the formal VBN sequence nor modify its internal structure. VBN theory provides the core causal structure explaining environmentally responsible behaviour as exhibited in these earlier studies (Landon et al., 2018; Thuy et al., 2025).

2.2. Hypothesis Development

2.2.1. Tourism Experience Satisfaction and Destination Attachment

Satisfaction with tourist experiences is a strong precursor of emotional attachment, as it develops feelings of comfort, belonging to, and identification with a place (Gautam, 2025). Tourists will feel a strong attachment to destinations that they value or appreciate when such value-based beliefs are reinforced during their visiting experiences through authenticity, a sense of environmental fit, and meaningful engagement (Jing & Loang, 2024; Zhang et al., 2024). The emotional attachment thus represents the feeling of satisfaction, an affirmation of the tourist’s values and beliefs (Alkhalifah et al., 2025). VBN theory outlines this process as the reinforcement of value-based beliefs, such that positive experiences trigger a moral connection to a destination. Place identity theory suggests that attachment moves the visitor through to the concept of self; visitors start to appreciate the destination as part of the concept of self (Bagheri et al., 2025). Thus, the greater the alignment between satisfaction and intrinsic environmental values, the greater the emotional connection, and, as a result, moral responsibilities are shared.

H1. 

Satisfaction with tourism experiences influences the attachment to a destination.

2.2.2. Tourism Experience Satisfaction and Destination Dependence

DSD occurs when tourists feel that a destination is inseparable from fulfilling expected needs for recreation, learning, or environmental harmony (Elshaer et al., 2024). Empirical evidence indicates that satisfaction serves as a psychological basis for this perception: the more satisfying the experience, the more indispensable the destination (Papadopoulou et al., 2023; Qiu et al., 2024). The VBN theory posits that satisfaction validates beliefs that a location is consistent with one’s ecological norms and, therefore, facilitates the act of valuing the destination to moral dependence (Hassan et al., 2024). Extract studies reinforce the relationship between DD and TES by illustrating that perceived satisfaction strengthens the belief that utility will continue in the future, resulting in moral dependence on that environment (Andjarwati & Rofiq, 2025; Prakhar et al., 2024). Thus, dependence can be understood as both a cognitive appraisal and a moral realization that a destination is truly distinct.

H2. 

Tourism experience satisfaction will positively influence destination dependence.

2.2.3. Tourism Experience Satisfaction and Eco-Tourism Behaviour

Satisfaction experienced from engaging in quality tourism activities in which people find meaning exists as a formidable motivator of pro-environmental behaviour (Zhao et al., 2025). Visitors who encounter socio-emotional fulfilment through nature-based, educational, heritage-rich or places or attractions tend to cultivate an intrinsic motivation to protect and preserve those contexts (H. Kim et al., 2015). The VBN (Value-Belief-Norm) framework is straightforward in how it interprets this: The experience serves as a value affirmation triggering moral behaviour, and it occurs because experience reinforces values, causing personal norms to turn into behaviour (Whitley et al., 2018). Supporting evidence and frameworks from recent research are consistent with all of the above ideas, that is, satisfaction with ecological interpretation, authenticity, and community engagement predicts recycling, waste reduction, and conservation behaviour in tourism contexts (Hassan et al., 2024; Sahabuddin et al., 2024). Satisfaction operates as a link between emotional experience and moral action when values are activated within the individual tourist’s cognitive framework.

H3. 

Tourism experience satisfaction positively influences eco-tourism behaviour.

2.2.4. Destination Attachment and Eco-Tourism Behaviour

Tourists with strong emotional attachment to destinations often exhibit heightened environmental awareness and moral responsibility. Attachment nurtures an empathetic connection, turning passive admiration into active protection. Studies show that visitors attached to destinations with natural or cultural significance are more willing to engage in pro-environmental actions, such as sorting waste and conserving habitats (Luong, 2024; Mandić et al., 2025). Thus, the transformation of belief into an activated norm: attachment embodies belief internalization, where emotional closeness reinforces the sense of moral duty. Beyond emotional identification, attachment sustains behavioural loyalty, motivating tourists to advocate for sustainable practices long after departure (Andjarwati & Rofiq, 2025). This emotional integration transforms personal pleasure into stewardship, showing that attachment is both an affective and moral foundation for sustainable tourism (Chen et al., 2025). Hence, attachment acts as the emotional core through which values mature into moral behaviour.

H4. 

Destination attachment positively influences eco-tourism behaviour.

2.2.5. Destination Dependence and Eco-Tourism Behaviour

DSD embodies a cognitive conviction that a destination’s distinctiveness is correlated with personal values and needs, making it irreplaceable. Elshaer et al. (2024) found that tourists with high dependence perceptions feel responsible for maintaining the integrity of destination environments and cultures. Prior research shows that visitors are more likely to engage in eco-friendly behaviours such as volunteering, recycling, and ethical consumption if they perceive a destination as irreplaceable (X. Cao et al., 2022; Wani et al., 2025). More recent research J. Wang and Wang (2025) and Xie and Wang (2024) indicated that tourists’ functional dependence on eco-destinations heightens environmental concern, as dependence increases the likelihood of perceived ecological consequences due to neglect. This understanding shows that dependence can be utilized as both a utilitarian and moral anchor that propels appreciation into action. Accordingly, this study proposes that destination dependence exerts a positive influence on eco-tourism behaviour. Individuals who have solid foundations of dependence in a destination’s unique ecological and cultural offerings will be more inclined to behave in a manner to maintain the destination.

H5. 

Destination dependence influences eco-tourism behaviour positively.

2.2.6. Mediation Effect of Destination Attachment

Destination attachment functions as a psychological gateway through which satisfaction is converted into respectful behaviour towards the environment. Such attachment creates an urge to take caring actions to places that have been valued, as the caring actions adequately represent protecting a personal connection to places (memory or an emotional bond). Prior emphasis showed that satisfied visitors tend to reframe their pleasure as a moral obligation, which is likely responsible for the strengthened pro-environmental intentions and moral norms (Guleria et al., 2024; C.-C. Huang & Lin, 2023). The moral obligation is likely to occur because attachment fosters empathy and identification with the place and sets the stage for voluntary environmental actions: donation, conservation, and advocacy for the place. Ultimately, destination attachment is a critical connection between the affective baton of the tourism experience of satisfaction to a behavioural trigger to accept a moral obligation (Gautam, 2025).

H6. 

Destination attachment positively mediates the relationship between tourism experience satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour.

2.2.7. Mediation Effect of Destination Dependence

Destination dependence serves as a cognitive conduit through which satisfaction unfolds into environmentally conscious behaviour (Gautam, 2025). Research in the past has shown that when a destination is viewed as unique, visitors develop a sense of obligation to preserve the destination (Guleria et al., 2024; Hamid et al., 2021), and this cognitive realization begins the transition of satisfaction from a transient pleasure to a meaningful intention for sustainability. Moreover, dependence deepens the association between satisfaction and behaviour by introducing a sense of moral vigilance that is rooted in gratitude and obligation. Prior research has indicated that tourists who are often significantly dependent on eco-destinations for emotional, psychological and spiritual rejuvenation generally express this gratitude through behaviours that follow the environmental conservation agenda (Luong, 2024; Tang et al., 2025). Thus, this attached sense of purpose to place generates a shift away from a simple enjoyment response to an intrinsic ethical obligation. Thus, dependence functions as a long-lasting cognitive mechanism that keeps the altruistic goal of sustainability alive long after the trip is over.

H7. 

Destination dependence positively mediates the link between satisfaction with the tourism experience and eco-tourism behaviour.

2.2.8. Moderation Effect of Ecocentrism

Ecocentrism (ECT) reflects the belief that nature possesses inherent value, and this value orientation can strengthen how satisfaction translates into eco-tourism behaviour. Tourists with strong ecocentric beliefs often regard sustainability not as an obligation, but as a moral responsibility that aligns with their personal values. Recent studies show that ecocentrism enhances the influence of positive experiences on responsible actions (Baltacı et al., 2025; Patwary et al., 2023). Instead of viewing satisfaction as simple enjoyment, eco-centric tourists interpret it as confirmation of their environmental beliefs, making them more willing to act protectively toward destinations. Practical evidence also shows that environmental education and participatory activities can strengthen such values, thereby improving the behavioural impact of tourism (Hassan et al., 2024; Pattaray, 2025; Sahabuddin et al., 2024). Furthermore, Paul and Roy (2025) found that tourists with deep ecological beliefs maintain consistent pro-environmental behaviour even after their trip. Thus, ecocentrism amplifies the satisfaction–behaviour link by turning positive experiences into lasting moral commitments, making eco-behaviour more habitual than situational.

Although ecocentrism represents a stable value orientation rather than an experiential outcome, recent behavioural and environmental psychology research shows that strong ecological worldviews can intensify how individuals interpret and emotionally evaluate environmentally relevant experiences (Zhou et al., 2023). Ecocentric individuals are more likely to assign moral significance to nature-based experiences and perceive them as reinforcing their existing pro-environmental commitments (Mishra et al., 2024). In this sense, ecocentrism does not create the satisfaction–behaviour link but amplifies it by heightening the moral and ecological weight ecocentric tourists attribute to positive tourism experiences. This positions ecocentrism as a boundary condition that strengthens the translation of experiential satisfaction into eco-responsible behaviour, rather than functioning as a direct experiential predictor.

H8. 

Ecocentrism positively moderates the relationship between tourism experience satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour.

2.3. Summary of Research Hypothesis

Table 1. Summary of Research Hypotheses.

Hypothesis Code	Hypothesized Relationship	Nature of Effect
H1	Tourism Experience Satisfaction → Destination Attachment	Positive effect
H2	Tourism Experience Satisfaction → Destination Dependence	Positive effect
H3	Tourism Experience Satisfaction → Eco-Tourism Behaviour	Positive effect
H4	Destination Attachment → Eco-Tourism Behaviour	Positive effect
H5	Destination Dependence → Eco-Tourism Behaviour	Positive effect
H6	Tourism Experience Satisfaction → Destination Dependence → Eco-Tourism Behaviour	Mediation effect (indirect)
H7	Tourism Experience Satisfaction → Destination Attachment → Eco-Tourism Behaviour	Mediation effect (indirect)
H8	Ecocentrism × Tourism Experience Satisfaction → Eco-Tourism Behaviour	Moderation effect

provides a structured overview of all eight hypotheses, specifying each proposed relationship in the model and whether it represents a direct, mediated, or moderated effect.

2.4. Conceptual Model

The proposed conceptual framework (Figure 1) integrates all study constructs into a unified behavioural pathway that explains how tourists convert experiential fulfilment into environmentally responsible action. The model positions tourism experience satisfaction as the initial psychological catalyst that shapes tourists’ deeper evaluations of a destination, which then evolve along two interconnected belief routes: emotional bonding through destination attachment and functional reliance through destination dependence. When tourists perceive their experiences as meaningful, enjoyable, or enriching, they are more likely to develop a sense of affective closeness or indispensability toward the destination, and these bonds, though distinct in nature, jointly propel eco-tourism behaviour by shaping perceptions of responsibility, care, and preservation. Attachment fosters a feeling that the destination forms part of one’s extended identity, promoting protective behaviour, while dependence reinforces the belief that the destination provides irreplaceable benefits, stimulating efforts to safeguard its ecological integrity. The framework also incorporates ecocentrism as a value-based moderator that intensifies the conversion of satisfaction into eco-tourism behaviour, such that individuals who hold strong ecological value orientations are more likely to translate positive experiences into active stewardship, advocacy, and conservation. With weaker ecocentric values, satisfaction alone may not evoke the same behavioural commitment. The model describes a comprehensive psychological sequence in which experiential fulfilment activates emotional and cognitive bonds that, when aligned with ecological value orientations, culminate in sustainable tourism actions that support the long-term preservation of destinations.

3. Methodology

3.1. Study Setting

The current research took place in Nanjing, the capital of Jiangsu Province, and one of China’s historically rich and environmentally progressive urban destinations. Positioning itself along the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, Nanjing exhibits a profound cultural legacy while maintaining an ecological environment that can serve as a unique urban environment for understanding sustainable tourism behaviour. The juxtaposition of Nanjing’s political, educational, and cultural role, and the nature of place-related urban ecological civilization, serves as a unique backdrop to studying levels of tourism experience satisfaction, destination attachment, and eco-tourism behaviour outcomes related to destination sustainable tourism development frameworks. This study used two of Nanjing’s most famous scenic areas, Purple Mountain Scenic Area and Xuanwu Lake Park, which are noted for cultural heritage and ecological preservation. Purple Mountain is known for its dense forest coverage, biodiversity, and features such as the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum, while Xuanwu Lake Park, in addition to being located near the ancient city wall, is noted for its natural beauty and its calm waters and sustainable park management. In conjunction, these attractions represent how Nanjing maintains a balance between cultural continuity and environmental responsibility, drawing millions of visitors are year. Given Nanjing’s consistent increase in eco-tourism and the current implementation of eco-tourist infrastructure policies, it presents an appropriate empirical context to understand the relationships between tourists’ experiential satisfaction, emotional attachment to destinations, and environmentally responsible behaviours while the sustainable urban tourism paradigm is ongoing. Although the selected sites are urban in nature, both Purple Mountain and Xuanwu Lake are formally designated as eco-heritage and ecological conservation zones within Nanjing’s urban ecological planning system. These areas are actively managed for biodiversity preservation, environmental education, and low-impact recreation, aligning with contemporary definitions of urban ecotourism, which extend beyond remote wilderness settings to include protected natural environments embedded within cities.

3.2. Sampling and Data Collection Procedures

The sampling design for this study was systematically planned to capture a wide range of individual tourists visiting the major scenic areas in Nanjing, the Purple Mountain Scenic Area and Xuanwu Lake Park. To capture the responses from various types of visitors, a stratified random sampling method was utilized that ensured sufficient representation for age, gender, educational level, nationality, travel purpose, and visitation frequency. The researchers selected the two sites for their ecological features, cultural significance, consistent year-round visitor traffic, and fit within the province’s paths for sustainable tourism development. The research team collected the data between June and September of 2025, during a peak travel month in Nanjing, so as to achieve visitor diversity and volume. Trained research assistants engaged tourists in the main entry points, take a break area, and ecological interpretation centers at both sites. After informing the participants about the study purpose, ensuring anonymity, and advising on voluntary participation, the tourists were provided with a self-administered questionnaire. To enhance transparency, the study acknowledges that sampling was limited to two eco-heritage sites in Nanjing, which may introduce regional bias; this was mitigated by applying a stratified on-site sampling procedure to capture varied tourist groups and by ensuring the final sample closely reflected the actual visitor profile reported for these locations. In addition, approximately 11% of visitors declined participation, and six multivariate outliers were removed during data screening to improve data quality. To address representativeness concerns, it is important to note that Purple Mountain and Xuanwu Lake are among the most visited eco-heritage sites in Eastern China, drawing tourists from various provinces and international markets, which reduces the homogeneity normally associated with single-site sampling. Although the procedure approximates convenience sampling, the inclusion of diverse nationalities, age groups, and occupational backgrounds offers sufficient demographic heterogeneity to support behavioural modelling in PLS-SEM. Nonetheless, regional limitations are acknowledged. All the items on the survey were translated into English and Simplified Chinese and back-translated to ensure the concepts and language used were accurate enough for administration. The estimated time for visitors to complete the survey was approximately 15–20 min.

All ethical guidelines for human subjects’ research were fully adhered to. Participants were guaranteed confidentiality, and they consented to the study voluntarily with an option to withdraw at any time. Data obtained in the study was used for academic purposes only. The study protocol was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Jiangsu University before data collection began.

Out of 450 distributed questionnaires, 420 were valid and retained for analysis after data checking, yielding a 93.3% response rate. Responses that were invalid (i.e., incomplete questionnaires and responses from straight-line answering patterns) were excluded from analyses to maintain data integrity. The final sample size of 420 participants exceeded the minimum threshold of 200 required for PLS-SEM (Hair et al., 2020) because this sample size provided sufficient statistical power to test the model. The demographic data analysis (in

Table 2. Profile of respondents.

Characteristics	Number (n)	Percentage (%)
Gender
Male	185	44.0
Female	235	56.0
Age Group (years)
18–25	102	24.3
26–35	118	28.1
36–45	84	20.0
46–55	66	15.7
Above 55	50	11.9
Education Level
Secondary School	62	14.8
Bachelor’s Degree	192	45.7
Master’s Degree	120	28.6
Doctorate	46	11.0
Marital Status
Single	208	49.5
Married	178	42.4
Others	34	8.1
Nationality
Domestic (Chinese)	328	78.1
International	92	21.9
Occupation
Student	106	25.2
Public Sector	78	18.6
Private Sector	116	27.6
Self-employed	68	16.2
Retired	52	12.4
Monthly Income (RMB)
Below 5000	122	29.0
5001–10,000	176	41.9
10,001–15,000	84	20.0
Above 15,000	38	9.0
Travel Frequency per Year
Once	78	18.6
2–3 times	202	48.1
4 times or more	140	33.3
Travel Companion
Alone	72	17.1
With Family	186	44.3
With Friends	132	31.4
With Tour Group	30	7.2
Purpose of Visit
Leisure and Recreation	258	61.4
Nature and Sightseeing	96	22.9
Education and Research	40	9.5
Business	26	6.2
Length of Stay
One Day	142	33.8
2–3 Days	188	44.8
4–6 Days	62	14.8
Above 6 Days	28	6.6
Previous Visits to Nanjing
First Time	174	41.4
2–3 Times	168	40.0
More than 3 Times	78	18.6
Interest in Eco-Tourism
Very High	132	31.4
High	192	45.7
Moderate	78	18.6
Low	18	4.3
Environmental Awareness Level
High	228	54.3
Moderate	160	38.1
Low	32	7.6

and Figure 2) showed a balanced sample of domestic (78%) and international (22%) tourists, with most ages between 18 and 55 years. About 56% of respondents were female, and 44% were male, which is consistent with the visitor demographics at Nanjing’s popular scenic areas. Moreover, a significant percentage of participants indicated a keen interest in sustainable tourism and cultural experiences, further supporting the rationale for selecting the destinations to examine eco-tourism behaviour and destination attachment.

3.3. Measurement of Variables and Instrument Development

The research instrument for this study was a structured questionnaire developed to measure the five latent constructs in the conceptual framework: Tourism Experience Satisfaction (TES), Destination Attachment (DSA), Destination Dependence (DSD), Ecocentrism (ECS), and Eco-Tourism Behaviour (ETB). Each construct was operationalized using multi-item scales adapted from well-established and recent tourism and environmental behaviour studies (Zhang et al., 2024), ensuring theoretical consistency and contemporary relevance. All items were measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree), reflecting the degree of respondents’ agreement with each statement.

3.3.1. Tourism Experience Satisfaction

The tourism experience satisfaction (TES) construct was conceptualized as a multidimensional variable comprising four dimensions, including Immersion, Education, and Fun, capturing the cognitive and affective evaluations of visitors’ experiences within the scenic sites. Nine items were adapted and refined from (Sihombing et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024). Sample items include: “I felt deeply absorbed in the tourism activities” (Immersion), “I learned something new about the environment or culture” (Education), and “The tourism activities were entertaining and enjoyable” (Fun).

3.3.2. Destination Attachment

Destination Attachment (DSA) was measured using five items adapted from (S. Huang et al., 2025; Luong, 2023), reflecting the emotional and symbolic bond tourists feel toward a destination. Example statements include: “I feel a strong emotional bond with this destination” and “I would feel a personal loss if I could no longer visit this destination.”

3.3.3. Destination Dependence

Destination Dependence (DSD), representing the functional significance of a place in fulfilling tourists’ needs, was measured using five items drawn from (Reitsamer & Brunner-Sperdin, 2017; Zhang et al., 2024). Illustrative items include: “This destination provides the best opportunities for the activities I enjoy most” and “I would not get the same enjoyment if I visited a different destination.”

3.3.4. Ecocentrism

Ecocentrism (ECS) was measured using five items that reflect participants’ ecological worldviews and environmental ethics. The items were developed from the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale (P. C. Stern et al., 1999; Zhou et al., 2023). Examples of the items included: “Nature has intrinsic value beyond human use”.

3.3.5. Eco-Tourism Behaviour

Eco-Tourism Behaviour (ETB), the dependent construct, was evaluated through five items that expressed requisite behaviours of tourists who were environmentally responsible in their behaviours while travelling. The five items were included in related studies conducted by (Lee et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2024). Example statements include: “I practice environmentally friendly behaviour while I travel”, “When I travel, I try to minimize waste and conserve resources”, and “I assist others to engage in sustainably when I visit a destination.”

A pre-test and pilot study were executed with 30 tourists to assess the appropriateness of the items in terms of clarity, relevance, and cultural considerations. Minor adjustments were made to the wording and translation to increase understanding. Additionally, content validity was an involvement of three academic authorities with expertise in tourism management and environmental psychology. During the full analysis, construct reliability and validity were assessed through Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). The convergent and discriminant validity assessment was conducted according to the criteria articulated by the soundness of the recommended acceptable range. The final questionnaire established reliability and demonstrated construct validity with distinct constructs, confirming that the instrument was usable for empirical purposes in Nanjing’s eco-tourism setting.

3.4. Data Analysis Techniques

The data analysis was conducted in several systematic stages to ensure methodological rigour, statistical reliability, and theoretical alignment with the study’s objectives. Quantitative data derived from the questionnaires were analyzed using SmartPLS 4.0, a second-generation structural equation modelling (SEM) software suitable for testing complex models involving both mediation and moderation effects (Hair et al., 2020). The Partial Least Squares approach was selected because it focuses on maximizing the explained variance of dependent constructs and performs effectively under non-normal data distributions and moderate sample sizes (D. Cao et al., 2025). The analytical process followed the two-step approach recommended by (Manley et al., 2021). The first stage involved evaluating the measurement model, which examined the psychometric properties of each construct. In the second stage, the structural model was evaluated to test the hypothesized relationships among tourism experience satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour (Khan et al., 2023; Owusu et al., 2024).

The analysis of data took place in a systematic series of stages in order to attend to methodological rigour, statistical validity, and theoretical fit in light of the study’s aims. Quantitative data emerging from the questionnaires were analyzed using SmartPLS 4.0, a second-generation structural equation modelling (SEM) software that is designed to test complex models, including both mediation and moderation effects (Hair et al., 2020). The Partial Least Squares approach was selected given its emphasis on maximizing the explained variance of dependent constructs, as well as its capacity to perform well with non-normal distributed data and moderate sample sizes (D. Cao et al., 2025). The authors followed the two steps approach, as recommended by (Manley et al., 2021). The first step assessed the measurement model, which assessed the psychometrics of the constructs. The second stage appraisal was the assessment of the structural model to test the hypothesized relationships among tourism experience satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour (Khan et al., 2023; Owusu et al., 2024). The study used SmartPLS 4.0 to obtain path coefficients, t-values, and p-values by applying a bootstrapping procedure with 5000 resamples to confirm parameter stability (D. Cao et al., 2025). These procedures provided a rigorous environment to assess the proposed model and understand the strength and direction of relationships among these constructs. Using SmartPLS 4.0 enabled us to accurately depict both direct and indirect effects and add depth to understanding the influences on eco-tourism.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Outer Model Evaluation

Table 3. Test for validity and reliability.

Construct	Measurement Item	VIF	Factor Loading
$\mathrm{Tourism} \mathrm{Experience} \mathrm{Satisfaction} (a=0.795; rho=0.814;CR=0.865;AVE=0.568)$
Education	I gained valuable knowledge about the destination’s environment or culture.	1.770	0.730
	The experience enhanced my understanding of sustainability and conservation.	1.800	0.785
	I learned something new that changed how I view nature and tourism.	2.192	0.784
Fun	I had a lot of fun during my visit to the destination.	2.204	0.883
	The tourism activities were entertaining and enjoyable.	2.230	0.855
	I felt happy and relaxed throughout my experience.	2.231	0.876
Immersion	I felt deeply absorbed in the tourism activities.	2.121	0.738
	I was completely engaged in the destination experience.	1.799	0.786
	I lost track of time because I was immersed in the destination.	1.696	0.743
$\mathrm{Destination} \mathrm{Attachment} (a=0.835; rh{o}_a=0.836;CR=0.890;AVE=0.669)$
	I feel emotionally attached to this destination.	1.103	0.863
	This place means a lot to me personally.	1.892	0.837
	I identify strongly with this destination.	1.387	0.833
	I have many positive memories associated with this destination.	2.949	0.780
	I would feel a personal loss if I could no longer visit this destination.	2.752	0.703
$\mathrm{Destination} \mathrm{Dependence} (a=0.790; rh{o}_a=0.806;CR=0.855;AVE=0.549)$
	This destination is ideal for the type of activities I enjoy.	2.259	0.846
	I am dependent on this place for meaningful travel experiences.	2.711	0.834
	Other destinations cannot provide the same satisfaction I get here.	2.486	0.806
	This destination offers everything I look for in a travel experience.	2.335	0.783
	This destination fulfills purposes that I cannot easily achieve elsewhere.	1.956	0.852
Eco-Tourism Behaviour ($a=0.873; rh{o}_a=0.879;CR=0.913;AVE=0.724$)
	I practice environmentally friendly travel.	1.841	0.761
	I minimize waste and conserve resources during my trips.	2.152	0.751
	I choose tourism services that support environmental protection.	3.295	0.875
	I respect local culture and nature when visiting destinations.	3.011	0.865
	I encourage others to travel sustainably.	1.098	0.843
$\mathrm{Ecocentrism} (a=0.887; rh{o}_a=0.893;CR=0.912;AVE=0.542)$
	I believe nature has intrinsic value beyond human use.	1.055	0.869
	Humans are part of, not separate from, the natural world.	2.593	0.872
	I feel morally obligated to conserve the natural environment.	1.957	0.848
	Human interference with nature often leads to serious consequences.	2.335	0.815

presents the results of the validity and reliability assessment for all constructs, showing that the measurement model meets the expected standards for internal consistency and convergent validity. Each construct demonstrates strong reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha, rho_a, and composite reliability values well above the recommended threshold of 0.70, indicating that the items consistently reflect their underlying latent variables (Hair et al., 2021). Table 3 shows that all constructs satisfy the key reliability and validity thresholds required for a robust measurement model, with the reported indices demonstrating strong psychometric performance. Tourism Experience Satisfaction achieves Cronbach’s alpha of 0.795, rho_A of 0.814, composite reliability (CR) of 0.865, and AVE of 0.568, all exceeding the recommended cut-offs of α ≥ 0.70, CR ≥ 0.70, and AVE ≥ 0.50, indicating solid internal consistency and convergent validity. Destination Attachment likewise performs strongly with α = 0.835, rho_A = 0.836, CR = 0.890, and AVE = 0.669, confirming that the items reliably capture the emotional bond with the destination. Destination Dependence shows good reliability with α = 0.790, rho_A = 0.806, CR = 0.855, and AVE = 0.549, indicating that the functional reliance on the destination is measured consistently. Eco-Tourism Behaviour demonstrates excellent reliability (α = 0.873, rho_A = 0.879, CR = 0.913, AVE = 0.724), reflecting strong indicator performance and high convergent validity. Ecocentrism also exhibits robust measurement properties with α = 0.887, rho_A = 0.893, CR = 0.912, and AVE = 0.542, surpassing all reliability thresholds and confirming that the items appropriately capture ecological value orientations. Across all constructs, factor loadings range from approximately 0.703 to 0.876, exceeding the recommended minimum loading of 0.70, which further supports indicator reliability. Taken together, the consistently high CR, rho_A, and AVE values across constructs demonstrate that Table 3 reflects a reliable and valid measurement model that meets all established PLS-SEM criteria.

4.2. Multicollinearity Assessment

The VIF as provided in Figure 3 illustrates the multicollinearity diagnostics for all constructs included in the model, showing that each variable falls well below the commonly accepted threshold of 5, indicating that collinearity is not a concern. Among the constructs, destination dependence exhibits the highest VIF value (2.49), followed closely by ecocentrism (2.37) and the immersion dimension of tourism experience satisfaction (2.37), reflecting moderate shared variance without reaching problematic levels. The distribution of VIF values demonstrates that the measurement and structural components of the model are free from harmful multicollinearity, ensuring that the estimated path coefficients are stable, reliable, and not inflated by overlapping constructs.

4.3. Discriminant Validity

Table 4. Discriminant validity test.

(HTMT) Matrix
	Destination Attachment	Destination Dependence	Eco-Tourism Behaviour	Ecocentrism	Tourism Experience Satisfaction
Destination Attachment
Destination Dependence	0.692
Eco-Tourism Behaviour	0.468	0.497
Ecocentrism	0.704	0.692	0.488
Tourism Experience Satisfaction	0.750	0.561	0.695	0.622
Fornell-Larcker criterion
	Destination Attachment	Destination Dependence	Eco-Tourism Behaviour	Ecocentrism	Tourism Experience Satisfaction
Destination Attachment	0.754
Destination Dependence	0.539	0.818
Eco-Tourism Behaviour	0.586	0.450	0.741
Ecocentrism	0.627	0.753	0.447	0.801
Tourism Experience Satisfaction	0.678	0.618	0.618	0.605	0.737

shows that the constructs in the model demonstrate strong discriminant validity, as all HTMT values fall below the recommended 0.85 threshold (Henseler et al., 2015). This outcome indicates that the relationships among the constructs do not reflect excessive similarity or conceptual redundancy, which is essential for ensuring that each latent variable captures a unique aspect of tourist attitudes and behaviour. In addition, the Fornell and Larcker (1981) results further reinforce this conclusion, as the square roots of the AVE values, displayed along the diagonal, are consistently higher than the corresponding inter-construct correlations, demonstrating that each construct shares more variance with its own indicators than with any other variable in the model. This pattern confirms that the measurement structure is both stable and conceptually coherent, with destination attachment and destination dependence reflecting separate dimensions of place bonding, while ecocentrism, tourism experience satisfaction, and eco-tourism behaviour also remain empirically separate. These tests provide strong evidence that the constructs are clearly differentiated, that the items load appropriately onto their intended factors, and that the measurement model is both psychometrically sound and suitable for reliable structural testing.

4.4. Cross-Loading Analysis

The results of the cross-loading analysis presented in

Table 5. Findings of cross-loadings.

	Destination Attachment	Destination Dependence	Eco-Tourism Behaviour	Ecocentrism	Tourism Experience Satisfaction
DSA1	0.863	0.274	0.875	0.273	0.383
DSA2	0.837	0.252	0.865	0.257	0.355
DSA3	0.833	0.271	0.781	0.272	0.376
DSA4	0.780	0.635	0.343	0.813	0.738
DSA5	0.703	0.680	0.368	0.869	0.786
DSD1	0.470	0.846	0.376	0.848	0.743
DSD2	0.527	0.834	0.372	0.815	0.802
DSD3	0.391	0.806	0.360	0.567	0.724
DSD4	0.366	0.783	0.362	0.546	0.730
DSD5	0.458	0.852	0.591	0.584	0.784
ETB1	0.603	0.190	0.761	0.234	0.368
ETB2	0.434	0.078	0.751	0.149	0.183
ETB3	0.863	0.274	0.875	0.273	0.383
ETB4	0.837	0.252	0.865	0.257	0.355
ETB5	0.580	0.635	0.843	0.813	0.738
ECT1	0.603	0.680	0.368	0.869	0.786
ECT2	0.494	0.734	0.426	0.872	0.808
ECT3	0.470	0.846	0.376	0.848	0.743
ECT4	0.527	0.834	0.372	0.815	0.802
EDU1	0.366	0.783	0.362	0.546	0.730
EDU2	0.458	0.651	0.534	0.580	0.785
EDU3	0.458	0.652	0.591	0.584	0.784
FUN1	0.863	0.274	0.875	0.273	0.883
FUN2	0.837	0.252	0.865	0.257	0.855
FUN3	0.833	0.271	0.781	0.272	0.876
IMS1	0.580	0.635	0.343	0.813	0.738
IMS2	0.603	0.680	0.368	0.869	0.786
IMS3	0.470	0.846	0.376	0.848	0.743

further confirm the measurement model’s discriminant validity. The result confirms that all items loaded highest on their respective constructs, with loadings above 0.70, confirming strong discriminant validity. Each indicator correlated more strongly with its intended construct than with others, indicating that the variables are conceptually distinct and complementary, as evidenced by cross-loadings. These results validate that the measurement model is reliable and appropriately structured for further analysis.

4.5. Robustness of Model and Fitness

Table 6. Result of model fitness and robustness.

Variables	R2	Interpretation	F2	Interpretation	Q2	Predictive Relevance
Destination Attachment	0.460	Moderate	0.320	Medium	0.211	Medium
Destination Dependence	0.843	Strong	0.280	Medium	0.190	Medium
Eco-Tourism Behaviour	0.876	Strong	0.340	Medium–Large	0.314	Large
Ecocentrism	–	Exogenous	–	–	–	–
Tourism Experience Satisfaction	–	Exogenous	0.291	Medium	0.22	Medium
Fit Index	Saturated Model	Estimated Model	Threshold Interpretation
RMS_theta	0.108	0.111	<0.120 = acceptable
NFI	0.928	0.931	≥0.90 = good fit
SRMR	0.062	0.067	<0.08 = good fit
d_ULS	2.941	3.112	Within acceptable simulation limits
Goodness of Fit (GOF)	0.482	0.491	>0.360 = strong

presents the overall fitness and robustness of the revised structural model, showing that the predictive power of the endogenous constructs falls within acceptable behavioural research standards. Destination Attachment (R² = 0.460) and Destination Dependence (R² = 0.843) exhibit moderate to strong explanatory levels, while Eco-Tourism Behaviour demonstrates strong predictability (R² = 0.876) with corresponding medium-to-large effect sizes and meaningful predictive relevance (Q² > 0.15). The model-fit indices also confirm good global model adequacy: RMS_theta remains below the 0.12 threshold, SRMR values fall under 0.08, and NFI exceeds 0.90, indicating satisfactory model performance. These results confirm that the revised model achieves strong reliability, valid predictive capability, and appropriate fit for PLS-SEM behavioural modelling.

4.6. Hypothesis Testing

Table 7. Outcome of the research hypothesis.

	Sample Mean (M)	Standard Deviation	T Statistics	p Values	Decision
Direct Relationships
H1: Tourism Experience Satisfaction -> Destination Attachment	0.612	0.041	14.93	0.000	Supported
H2: Tourism Experience Satisfaction -> Destination Dependence	0.244	0.054	4.52	0.000	Supported
H3: Tourism Experience Satisfaction -> Eco-Tourism Behaviour	0.311	0.067	4.64	0.000	Supported
H4: Destination Attachment -> Eco-Tourism Behaviour	0.421	0.049	8.59	0.000	Supported
H5: Destination Dependence -> Eco-Tourism Behaviour	0.536	0.044	12.18	0.000	Supported
Mediation Relationships
H6: Tourism Experience Satisfaction -> Destination Dependence -> Eco-Tourism Behaviour	0.191	0.029	6.657	0.000	Supported
H7: Tourism Experience Satisfaction -> Destination Attachment -> Eco-Tourism Behaviour	0.575	0.024	24.272	0.000	Supported
Moderating Relationship
H8: Ecocentrism × Tourism Experience Satisfaction -> Eco-Tourism Behaviour	0.164	0.005	24.970	0.000	Supported

and Figure 4 presents the hypothesis testing results for the structural model, showing that all direct, mediating, and moderating relationships are statistically supported. Tourism experience satisfaction significantly predicts both destination attachment (β = 0.612, t = 14.93) and destination dependence (β = 0.244, t = 4.52), and it also has a direct positive effect on eco-tourism behaviour (β = 0.311, t = 4.64). Both attachment (β = 0.421) and dependence (β = 0.536) further contribute to eco-tourism behaviour, confirming their mediating roles, with the indirect effects via dependence (β = 0.191) and attachment (β = 0.575) also significant. Additionally, ecocentrism strengthens the relationship between satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour (β = 0.164, t = 24.97), indicating a robust moderating effect. The results suggest that satisfaction influences eco-tourism behaviour both directly and through destination bonds, and that this relationship is amplified when tourists hold strong ecological value orientations.

In addition, the interaction plot as depicted in Figure 5 shows that ecocentrism positively moderates the relationship between tourism experience satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour. Tourists with higher ecocentrism exhibit stronger eco-tourism behaviour as their satisfaction increases, indicating that environmental concern amplifies the effect of positive tourism experiences on sustainable actions. s tourism experience satisfaction increases from −1.0 to +1.0, eco-tourism behaviour rises more sharply among tourists with high ecocentrism (+1 SD), reaching values near 1.6, compared to those with average ecocentrism (≈0.9) or low ecocentrism (−1 SD ≈ 0.3). This pattern indicates that tourists who possess stronger ecocentrism are more likely to translate satisfying tourism experiences into environmentally responsible actions, reinforcing the moderating role of ecocentrism.

4.7. Discussion and Theoretical Implications

In this part of the research, the study interprets the empirical results within the VBN framework and describes how ultimately the tourism experience satisfaction, destination attachment, dependence, and ecocentrism combine to lead to eco-tourism behaviour amongst visitors in China’s changing sustainable tourism landscape. The first hypothesis (H1) posits that higher levels of tourism experience satisfaction are positively associated with greater destination attachment among visitors. This result implies that visitors who experience highly satisfying trips through surprise, immersion, education, and fun are more likely to internalize the destination’s value and develop attachment to it. Supporting this, previous research reported that perceived value and awe enhanced place attachment and responsible behaviour (Jing & Loang, 2024; Zhang et al., 2024). Similarly, Liu et al. (2024) reported that memorable nature-based experiences strengthen attachment and drive pro-environmental intentions. Another recent work by Alkhalifah et al. (2025) found that a sustainable tourism experience positively influenced knowledge and attachment. Further, Bagheri et al. (2025) showed that embodied attraction increases tourist satisfaction, attachment, and environmental awareness. Thus, the result validates that satisfying tourism experiences serve as the value trigger in the VBN sequence, leading to stronger destination attachment in the eco-tourism milieu.

Additionally, the study put forward in H2 that satisfaction with the tourism experience would positively affect visitors’ dependence on the destination, where they feel the destination meets their travel needs in a unique way. For tourism in China and especially in destinations that are ecologically and culturally authentic, when visitors receive a satisfying interaction or experience, they may feel they can depend on that destination as a superior option that best meets their values-based decision making. For example, a recent study by Hassan et al. (2024) about desert destinations identified place attachment as a mediating influencer between perceived value and environmentally responsible behaviour, indicating a dependence dimension. Similarly, it was noted by Prakhar et al. (2024) that visitors with memorable experiences are more likely to have visitation dependence/loyalty that aligns with conservation values. Prior study utilizing extract analysis also alluded to the functional consequences of satisfying experiences in stimulating repeat and responsible visitation (Papadopoulou et al., 2023; Qiu et al., 2024). The current analysis builds upon the importance of satisfied experiences, which convert value-based cognitions into a dependence on the destination for making meaning of value expression.

In addition, H3 predicted that higher tourism experience satisfaction leads directly to increased eco-tourism behaviour. The result confirmed that when tourists are satisfied, they are more motivated to act in line with their values and norms. For instance, Zhao et al. (2025) found that perceived value and attachment influenced environmentally responsible behaviour in desert tourism. Also, H. Kim et al. (2015) confirmed that sustainability experiences positively affect pro-environmental tourist behaviour. The present finding, therefore, confirms the VBN theory in eco-tourism, highlighting how satisfying experiences trigger value-belief-norm sequences that lead to behaviour. The novelty is in showing the direct link from experience satisfaction to behaviour, capturing both emotion and cognition within the VBN framework sector (Hassan et al., 2024; Sahabuddin et al., 2024).

Furthermore, H4 stated that destination attachment positively affects eco-tourism behaviour. The study confirmed a positive and significant connection between DSA and ETB. The inference is that visitors who are firmly attached to destinations’ eco-sites are more likely to engage in eco-tourism behaviours because attachment deepens value alignment and moral obligation. An earlier assessment by Andjarwati and Rofiq (2025) found that place attachment significantly affects individuals’ value-based perceptions and environmentally responsible behaviour. Moreover, Chen et al. (2025) delineated that attachment significantly predicts sustainable tourist behaviours. The results of this study underscore the normative role of attachment in the value-belief-norm sequence. Once tourists feel emotionally bonded to a destination that aligns with their values, they act in ways consistent with those values.

In addition, the study analysis found a positive and significant relationship between destination dependence and eco-tourism behaviour in H5. The finding indicates that when tourists believe a destination uniquely fulfils their leisure and value-based needs (dependence), they are more inclined to act sustainably. Within VBN theory, this dependence reflects a belief formation process in which value activation from experience then activates personal norms and behaviour. Zhang et al. (2024) uncovered that place dependence influences pro-environmental behaviour through identification. J. Wang and Wang (2025) emphasized internal psychological processes, including beliefs and norms, as drivers of pro-environmental behaviour. Elshaer et al. (2024) also discussed how behaviour follows from a sense of place and functional reliance on destination. X. Cao et al. (2022) noted that dependence perceptions increase responsible behaviour. Extant studies have also confirmed that functional drivers (such as dependence) complement normative drivers in tourism pro-environmental behaviour (Luong, 2024; Mandić et al., 2025). The novelty lies in viewing destination dependence as a belief mechanism within VBN and in demonstrating its predictive power for eco-tourism behaviour literature.

Moving on, the mediation proposition H6 demonstrated that destination dependence mediates the relationship between tourism experience satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour. The result means that satisfying tourism experiences lead to beliefs about destination dependence, which in turn influence responsible behaviour. According to VBN theory, positive experiences develop a value-based belief that the destination uniquely satisfies one’s travel values, thereby strengthening dependency on that destination; such a belief triggers personal norms which lead to eco-behaviour. Guleria et al. (2024) Indicated that interaction fosters dependence, which then triggers behavioural outcomes. C.-C. Huang and Lin (2023) showed that belief structures mediate experience and behaviour in plateau eco-destinations.

Likewise, H7 confirmed there is a positive and significant indirect relationship via destination attachment between tourism experience satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour. This result indicates that satisfying tourism experiences give rise to emotional bonds with the destination (attachment), which then channel into environmentally responsible actions. In the VBN framework, this translates as values activated by experience influencing belief (attachment), then norm, then behaviour. Gautam (2025) observed that attachment mediates between eco-motivation and intention in nature-based settings. Luong (2024) demonstrated the mediating role of attachment in experience–behaviour pathways. Previous analysis found that memorable experiences lead to attachment to pro-environmental behaviour (Guleria et al., 2024; Hamid et al., 2021). The novelty lies in the dual-mediator approach (attachment and dependence) within a VBN-informed model, applied within eco-tourism.

The last hypothesis (H8) suggests ecocentrism strengthens the positive effect of tourism experience satisfaction on eco-tourism behaviour. Thus, when ecocentrism is high, the impact of satisfying tourism experience (which triggers beliefs) on behaviour (via norms) becomes stronger. Hence, tourists with stronger eco-centric beliefs are more likely to convert satisfying experiences into eco-tourism actions. Supporting this, (Baltacı et al., 2025) found that biospheric values strengthened tourism sustainability outcomes. Patwary et al. (2023) showed that environmental value orientation increases responsiveness to experience in shaping behaviour. Earlier works emphasized the role of internal psychological factors (values) in motivating eco-behaviour and confirmed that value orientation is foundational in driving pro-environmental tourism behaviour (Hassan et al., 2024; Pattaray, 2025; Sahabuddin et al., 2024). The practical novelty of this result lies in showing that eco-centric values do not merely underpin tourists’ moral reasoning but also actively strengthen the translation of satisfaction into eco-friendly behaviour. This means that, in practical terms, tourism planners and destination managers can create visitor experiences that align with travellers’ ecological values through interpretive programmes, sustainable infrastructure, and community engagement in order to facilitate enhanced responsible behaviour and long-term stewardship of destinations.

5. Policy Directions and Conclusions

5.1. Policy Directions

The findings offer several practical implications for policymakers, destination managers, and tourism actors, while requiring careful interpretation to avoid overstating what can realistically be achieved through satisfaction-driven strategies. Although the positive association between experience satisfaction and eco-tourism behaviour suggests that meaningful experiences may coincide with environmentally responsible tendencies, this relationship does not, on its own, verify actual behavioural change or guarantee that policy interventions can directly convert satisfaction into pro-environmental action. Accordingly, policy design should avoid assuming a linear causal model in which enhancing satisfaction automatically generates sustainable behaviour. Instead, destination authorities can focus on shaping environments where emotionally engaging and informationally rich experiences facilitate rather than dictate responsible choices. Examples include ecological storytelling, guided interpretation, low-impact heritage trails, or participatory conservation activities that make responsible behaviour easier, more rewarding, and more intuitive. At the same time, policymakers must balance experiential enhancement with the risk of over tourism or excessive place dependence. Strengthening emotional or functional attachment to a single destination may inadvertently encourage repeat visitation at volumes that exceed environmental carrying capacity. Therefore, sustainability-oriented policy should prioritize distributed visitation, ecological zoning, and capacity-based crowd regulation to avoid placing undue pressure on specific sites. Rather than maximizing attachment, policy frameworks should emphasize responsible engagement, fostering a sense of environmental care that extends beyond a single attraction and supports broader ecological stewardship. Integrating behavioural indicators—such as willingness to follow conservation rules, participation in low-impact activities, or support for biodiversity protection—into destination assessment criteria may provide a more realistic and balanced approach to encouraging sustainability without encouraging harmful patterns of overuse.

The second implication remains within an operational context, and destination management organizations, and tourism enterprises should seek to harness the emotional and functional dimensions of destination bonding, attachment, and dependence as strategic levers for sustainability. For example, managers should look to offer experiences designed to enhance the experience of both affective connection and perceived utility. By doing this, managers can leverage satisfaction to create stewardship. Hotels and tour operators might look to offer “Adopt a Place” programmes, where repeat visitors contribute to conservation funding directly and receive progress updates on ecological outcomes. Mobile platforms might also enable tourists to map their own reduction in environmental impact while staying on site and reiterate the definition of moral satisfaction in parallel with dependence on the destination’s integrity. Overall, this not only sets up a programme to reorient tourists from passive consumers to active partners, but it also creates a self-sustaining cycle of attachment, responsibility, and advocacy for the long-term resilience of a destination.

The third implication focuses on innovation in business and public–private partnerships. Like other tourism-related businesses, tourism enterprises should avoid bland green marketing and develop value-based communication approaches addressing tourists’ moral identities. Companies can partner with their governments to develop certification models focused on co-creating emotional value with considerations for local community-delivered experience, environmental storytelling, and circular economies. For instance, eco-lodges in China’s heritage areas might implement “value-reflection stations” for guests, engaging them in a short digital reflection on how their travel choices feel comfortable in terms of environmental ethics. It is also feasible for tourism technology businesses to develop AI-driven platforms that tailor eco-friendly travel itineraries for travellers based on their value orientations and satisfaction feedback, essentially merging behavioural science and digital innovation to improve sustainability and competitiveness.

The fourth implication is about instilling community elevation and cultural integration. Local communities are often the keepers of ecological and cultural assets, and they can be empowered to which decision-makers should seek participatory governance mechanisms (e.g., governance structures or voting) that align with tourists’ value-belief systems through a community-led destination management board. The local residents are included in decision making processes about the use of tourism resources use and sustainability aligns with the local identity and well-being of those community members. Education and interpreting centres operate as stimuli embedding the experience of the local communities’ narratives into the environmental education of visitation, where that visitation is an authentic engagement site for tourists. Further, tourism can be designed at a “rural” community level to provide farm “stay” reciprocal benefits where the visitors’ contributions fund local sustainability, conceptualized as renewable energy or waste-recycling projects. Satisfaction-driven attachment is then activatable into real and measurable collective community benefit outcomes for both social and environmental sustainability outcomes.

The fifth implication addresses educational and behavioural interventions. Incumbents in the fields of academia, the media, and environmental education should develop intentional campaigns to promote a more eccentric value orientation among tourists and local residents. In lieu of those signature awareness-type programmes, these interventions should provide experiential learning opportunities that allow for meaningful reflections in the form of stories. For example, the inclusion of sustainability themes into museum stories, or heritage tours enhanced with augmented reality technologies could help achieve both emotional affect and cognitive understanding. Educational institutions in tourism locations such as Nanjing could develop vocational education programmes that include behaviours of sustainability modules so future tourism professionals appreciate the key psychological drivers of eco-behaviour. In parallel, governments could place behavioural nudges that provide feedback on energy or water use along tourism facilities, and so reinforce personal norms or at least establish a link between satisfaction and moral self-regulation. A coordinated behavioural ecosystem would gradually shift community norms from shallow green behaviour to sustainability awareness rooted in values.

Lastly, the sixth implication pertains to macro governance and much longer-term policy innovation. National and regional governments could properly institutionalize behavioural accountability indices that accompany economic performance indicators related to tourism. Such indices would not only keep track of visitation numbers or expenditure, but also how much places support emotional and cognitive eco-bonds with tourists. Such indices contribute to adaptive policymakers and the allocation of funding to projects that have proven to change moral behaviour engagement. Inter-ministerial partnerships between tourism sectors, education, and environment could also be supported by longitudinal behavioural accounting and operate under a more integrated sustainability agenda. Therefore, as described throughout this research, a complete paradigm shift must come, from managing the number of tourists to managing the tourists’ mindset and level of satisfaction, attachment, dependence, and ultimately, ecocentrism as sufficient behavioural cornerstones for a more ecologically resilient tourism future that is also founded upon an ethical framework.

5.2. Conclusions

In alignment with the overall purpose of the research to understand how tourism experience satisfaction, destination attachment, destination dependence, and ecocentrism interact to shape eco-tourism behaviour within the Value–Belief–Norm framework, a comprehensive empirical model was tested with tourists at eco-heritage destinations in China. The design of the study originated with the aim to fuse psychological, behavioural, and experiential dimensions to finally reflect how tourists’ emotional experiences and cognitive responses to travel experience evolve into moral obligation and environmentally responsible behaviours. The structural equation modelling results support the hypothesized relationships, confirming that tourism experience satisfaction strengthens tourists’ overall sense of place attachment, expressed through both its emotional and functional dimensions. Rather than framing attachment and dependence as entirely separate psychological mechanisms, this study follows contemporary place-based literature in recognizing them as interconnected sub-dimensions that jointly reflect how individuals relate to destinations.

The emotional bond captures feelings of connection and identification, while the functional dimension reflects perceived usefulness and the irreplaceable benefits the destination provides. Together, these dimensions contribute to behavioural outcomes, demonstrating that the more satisfied tourists are with their experiences, the more strongly they internalize both facets of attachment, which in turn encourages eco-tourism behaviour. The findings also show that ecocentrism plays a significant moderating role, reinforcing the extent to which satisfied tourists translate their attachment into sustainable actions, highlighting the value-driven nature of responsible tourism behaviour. These findings offer more comprehensive knowledge of responsible tourism behaviours, provide theoretical contributions, and offer practical implications to China with its increased emphasis on ecological civilization and sustainable tourism.

5.3. Limitations and Future Research

Although the present research has made a significant contribution, it does have limitations. First, the research only involves visitors in Nanjing, China, a place in which heritage and ecological features make this a unique destination. This methodological approach may impose limits on the transferability and application of the findings to other settings with different cultural or environmental features. Future research could use a comparative multi-destination design across developed and developing countries to provide a validation of the robustness of the proposed model in different cultural contexts. Second, the cross-sectional data design does not permit the inference of any causality between constructs, indicating a need for longitudinal or experimental research, which would allow for changes in values, beliefs, and behaviours over time. Third, while the survey included psychological and experiential variables, situational or structural variables, such as social norms, environmental policy, or technological interactions, were not included and may also influence sustainability behaviour. The addition of these macro-level factors could greatly enhance future analysis and forecast ability in eco-tourism research. Moreover, a key limitation is the regional concentration of the sample, as data were collected from only two eco-heritage sites in Nanjing, which may restrict broader generalization despite efforts to mitigate bias through stratified sampling.

Future studies could focus on interdisciplinary growth, methodological advances, and digital integration. Scholars could combine behavioural frameworks, like the VBN, with emerging frameworks, like moral identity theory or environmental self-determination theory, to understand deeper motivational pathways. Future studies could explore how AI-engaged and gamified experiences enhance tourists’ experiences and strengthen ecological norms. In addition, given that the study does not include direct measurement of the core VBN constructs, future research should incorporate full VBN measurement models and multi-method designs to strengthen theoretical precision and empirical robustness. Finally, this work could be expanded into community-based and rural tourism contexts to examine how value-driven behaviours support sustainable livelihoods and empower tourists/residents as co-creators of ecosystem sustainability and cultural continuity in a rapidly changing global sustainable tourism environment. Despite the demographic diversity of visitors, the single-city sampling frame may not fully represent China’s wider ecotourism population, and future studies should incorporate multi-regional samples.