The Evaluation of Green Building’s Feasibility: Comparative Analysis across Different Geological Conditions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Research Objectives
2. Literature Review and Background
2.1. Implementation of Green Buildings
2.2. Present Green Building Processes
2.3. Comparison of Green Practices against Traditional Construction
2.4. Overall Values of Green Buildings
3. Research Development and Process
- Identify a variety of green building materials that can be used at various stages of the construction process.
- Investigate the key green building materials.
- Compare and contrast the identified green building materials with standard building materials.
- Address the advantages and disadvantages of using green building materials.
- Outline how the identified green materials combat resource starvation, climate change, and negative impacts on human health.
Methods and Data Sources
4. Findings and Analyses
4.1. Fitzroy North
- Design response: Before the renovation, the home featured a corridor leading to a living area and a kitchen. The setup was unwanted by the owners, so to combat this, a bathroom was constructed in place of the kitchen area. In addition to this, the focus on green building alternatives allowed for a wide range of features to be installed. Some of these include double-glazed windows/doors, LED lighting, brand new insulation, and solar power. The remainder of the home was largely untouched to preserve the original heritage aspects of the structure.
- The green building improvements were carried out as per below:
- Energy-saving lighting: The old home comprised all standard globes; however, with the renovation, all lighting within the home was upgraded to feature light-emitting diodes. The watt range varied based on the room required to light, with the average being 12 watts. This enabled sufficient and efficient active lighting where necessary while maintaining below-average energy consumption.
- Insulation: The renovation upgraded the roofing and walls of the home with sufficient glass wool batts primarily made up of recycled materials. The roof insulation rating was 4, while the wall insulation rating was 3.5. The overall quality of the home improved as the ability to keep it warm during colder periods increased.
- Passive heating and cooling: The old home featured a brick wall on the side of the house and inefficient window locations to enable access to natural lighting. The renovation saw north-facing windows installed to allow a greater amount of natural light to enter the home. This installation brought about a higher quality of temperature control and allowed for passive heating. Additionally, the brick wall mentioned above is now showcased within the kitchen and dining space as it enables thermal mass and both passive heating and cooling. The original requirements for active heating and cooling have significantly diminished with the inclusion of multiple screened windows, plant locations, and blinds to regulate access to sunlight when necessary.
- Solar hot water and solar photovoltaic (PV) system: The old home originally had an 835-watt grid-connected solar photovoltaic structure in place. The renovation saw this upgraded to a 1.185-kilowatt system. Additionally, with the renovation, two 175-watt solar panels were placed on the roof to assist with the overall passive energy availability of the home. Lastly, the previous hot water system was replaced with a new solar hot water system to enable further reductions in gas usage.
- Sustainable materials usage: Rather than using completely new materials, the renovation made use of a large range of sustainable building materials. The benchtop and cupboards were predominately made up of excess materials from a different demolition, while the shelving was constructed through recycled timber. Additionally, the sink in the bathroom was repaired and remodeled, while the porch was made up of Green Element’s excess stock. The most influential sustainable material usage was the creation of the slab. Its contents were made up of 60% recycled materials and 30% cement substitute. The use of the substitute saved over a tonne of CO2.
- Water saving: The old home had no equipment or processes in place to save water and reduce active water usage. The renovation included a brand new 2000 L water tank located outside to store rainwater. The plumbing is connected to the garden (for plants), toilet, and laundry. In addition to the rainwater tank, a 4-star water-efficient toilet and 3-star faucets were set up in the toilet and bathroom/kitchen, respectively. This variation has enabled the owners to save over 100 L of water per day compared to the previous formation.
- Windows and glazing: The old home featured standard windows and doors throughout. These were removed and replaced with double-glazed glass. In addition to this, a double-glazed skylight was installed in the bathroom to allow for more natural lighting. Through the window/door variations, the renovated home has significantly less usage of active lighting.
4.2. Curtin
- Design response: Before the renovation, the house featured a central staircase that was extremely inefficient when managing heat flow. Rather than maintaining heat within the home, the staircase enabled heat to travel upwards, leaving the bottom floor cold and completely deprived of warmth. The response and improvement of green buildings within the home saw the old staircase removed and a new one built on the east side of the home. This allowed for better management of the heat flow and enabled the residents to capture the warmth rather than release it. The kitchen moved from the southeast area of the home into a more central position that faces north. Its key feature is two double-glazed doors that allow for more natural lighting and heat to enter the home. The lounge was transferred to the southeast in place of the previously located kitchen. It faces south, with direct access to the backyard and features double-glazed sliding doors for natural lighting and heat. The upstairs area was maintained in its original form; however, the roof was reconstructed to become an eco-roof. This prompted significantly lower energy consumption of the home and enabled large monetary savings in comparison to a standard home. The entire renovation focused on the key objective of ensuring that the house was reconstructed to become a compact, sealed building without needless ceiling insertions and holes throughout the home to better manage the flow of heat. The objective enabled the most efficient passive heating and cooling possible by using green building initiatives.
- The green building improvements were carried out as per below:
- Active heating and cooling: The old home featured an extremely inefficient heater on the bottom floor and a reverse split system on the second floor. Due to the nature of Canberra’s winter temperature, a new and improved active heating system was necessary. The renovation saw the installation of a highly effective hydronic heating setup that acts through a gas boiler and radiator. For active cooling, the builder implemented ceiling fans that increase the flow of cool air around the home.
- Building materials and insulation: The old home was of brick veneer, although not entirely energy inefficient, and there were selected areas that required change. The renovation saw the removal of bricks at various sections of the structure, which were replaced with restored timber weatherboards in the form of cladding. This replacement enabled the home to use a material that has a lower impact on the environment while reducing embodied energy. In addition to this, the renovation featured a change to the existing wall insulation that included R3 recycled polystyrene, R2 polyester batts, and R5 wool cells. The change restricts the flow of heat during winter to maintain warmth within the home, whereas the old design lacked the insulation required to do so.
- Energy-saving lighting: The lighting within the home was upgraded to efficient light-emitting diodes. This allows for active lighting throughout the home where required, while committing to just 8 watts.
- Passive heating and cooling: The old home lacked the basic design that enabled high-quality passive heating and cooling. The renovation saw the inclusion of exceptional window design and placement to increase the ability of natural light to enter the home. This caused a reduction in the usage of artificial lighting and increased the performance of passive heating. Additionally, all windows and doors were set up with double glazing to prompt heat flow from natural light.
- Solar hot water and solar PV system: The old home featured an old electric hot water system that consumed unnecessary energy. The renovation saw the inclusion of a brand new solar hot water system, which increased the overall efficiency of water use and reduced the usage of the booster. In addition to this, the builder was unable to include solar panels in the build due to the design of the old home; however, to combat this, the overall efficiency of the home was developed to minimize costs.
- Sustainable materials usage: The excess materials from the pre-renovated home were given away to individuals who needed them; otherwise, the rest were used to renovate the new home.
- Water saving: The old home lacked any form of water-saving features. Therefore, considering Canberra’s uncharitable rainfall, the renovation saw the inclusion of two 5000 L rainwater tanks, which were both directly connected to the toilet and laundry room. This reduced the amount of active water usage and enabled the recycling of water to the present.
4.3. Birkenhead
- Design response: The home was initially drafted to house two individuals; therefore, the amount of space available to renovate was restricted. Additionally, the renovation had its share of tests that needed to be overcome. The main issue that arose was the council putting forth a requirement of two off-street car spaces (one being sheltered). With already limited space to work with, it was a strain for the designer to include the spaces. However, overall, the response was effective. The owners sought to achieve the objective of making energy-efficient and environmentally friendly structures with limited spending and space. The builder and designer made good use of the area and boosted both solar and winter warmth potential, while various windows were inserted to enable maximum natural lighting. Overall, the response was well organized and displayed the effectiveness of green building initiatives.
- The green building improvements were carried out as per below:
- Energy-saving lighting: The lighting within the home was upgraded throughout with LEDs. The owners decided to remove all downlights from the structure as they did not want any issues with the ceiling insulation. Additionally, the design of the home enabled more than satisfactory natural lighting; therefore, the need for active lighting and energy use was modest.
- Sealed building fabric: The renovation patched up the majority of the penetrations and unnecessary voids within the home. Thermal imaging analysis conducted on air pressure testing concluded that the structure brought about 3.6 air changes p/hour at 50 pascals (PA). The standard Australian home brings about 19 air changes p/hour; this means the home is well above the average at 15 ACH less. This is beneficial, as well-sealed homes reduce carbon emissions and energy bills by up to 25% and ensure homes maintain the heat in colder seasons.
- Solar hot water and solar PV system: The old home lacked any form of solar power and/or heating. One of the owner’s objectives was to ensure sufficient energy availability through natural methods; therefore, to solve this, a 3.5-kilowatt solar PV was installed on the roof. This allows for more energy to be available than necessary and has completely removed the need for active energy use. Additionally, a solar hot water system was introduced to steer away from the older gas water heater.
- Thermal mass: The old home could not maintain and regulate temperature when required. The renovation increased the internal thermal mass of the home by constructing two recycled brick walls in two separate areas of the home. The method of reverse brick veneer was used, which shows the bare brick wall on the inside of the home. This drastically improved the ability of the home to manage heat and cold while looking modern and unique.
- Wall construction: The renovation required the addition of new walls and the owners insisted on using green building materials for its construction. The solution was to use SIPs, otherwise known as structural insulated panels. These are high-performing panels that are made of foam in between exterior sheathing. The overall result is a durable, cost-efficient, and environmentally friendly building material that can increase the effectiveness of passive heating and cooling.
- Water saving: The old home neglected water saving and unnecessarily used water regularly. To combat this, the builder installed two rainwater tanks of 5000 and 2000 L, totaling 7000 L. These tanks were connected to all water sources within the home. The overall effect caused significant reductions in water usage and cut the owner’s water bills by over 60%.
- Window glazing: The old home featured standard windows and doors throughout. The renovation saw that all windows and glass-fitted doors were replaced with double-glazed aluminum. Additionally, two new north-side windows were created to allow for easier access to natural lighting while ensuring enough shading to prevent unwanted sun in summer. The upgrades of the windows and glass doors enabled the home to receive sufficient amounts of natural lighting whilst reducing the need for active lighting.
4.4. Caloundra
- Design response: The design was shaped to suit the needs of a small family. It includes three bedrooms, two bathrooms, and a garage. Considering the focus of the build was to demonstrate the benefits of green building, the home is a lightweight construction that is well insulated and saves energy through appliances, windows, and solar power. Additionally, the water sources in the home all have well-above-average water efficiency labeling and standard ratings. Many of the walls in the home were designed as reverse brick veneer. It is featured in the home to increase the ability to manage temperature and boost thermal mass. The main reason behind the decision to use reverse brick veneer was so that the bricks can store heat during the colder periods of the year. The materials used throughout the home were predominately made of recycled material. Those that were not recycled were all materials that can recycle themselves. The house itself can be deconstructed and all of the materials can be reused.
- The green building inclusions were set out as below:
- Concrete slab: The creation of the concrete slab was extremely precise in its vertical and horizontal measurements. It also required its mass to be perfect to achieve its NatHERS 10-star rating. The slab rests on waffle ponds, which creates air pockets. This allows for insulation to be present and regulates the temperature within the home.
- Energy-efficient appliances: The home was fitted with highly energy-efficient appliances that consume less energy than standard appliances. Additionally, ceiling fans circulate air through the home and into the vents to produce cool wind flow and reduce the need for air conditioning.
- Energy-saving windows: The windows and doors within the home were all fitted as low-E glass, which is essentially glass that has been coated with a substance to reflect energy. Its purpose is to maintain energy within its original location. Additionally, the windows were placed in a calculated manner to ensure the best natural lighting is available.
- Insulation: There was a heavy focus on ensuring that the home was well insulated. This is one of the major factors in the achievement of the 10-star NatHERS rating. The outer walls featured R1 wrap and R2 batts, while the roof featured R3 batts and a tier of R1.5 glass wool. Insulation plays an important part in enabling the home to maintain its desired temperature without active heating or cooling.
- Lightweight construction: The construction of the home was composite, meaning that an array of different materials was used to complete the project. In cohesion with the reverse brick veneer, a variety of lightweight materials were used such as timber obtained through environmentally friendly methods. The decision to use lightweight materials reduces the overall embodied energy of the home.
- Reverse brick veneer: Reverse brick veneer builds have been common among much newer sustainable construction builds. Its ability to provide thermal mass in a structure is invaluable and enables the home to reject unwanted heat from the exterior while maintaining any heat from the interior.
- Solar photovoltaic system: The installation of a 1.5-kilowatt solar photovoltaic system has enabled the home to generate more energy through natural sources than the required amount for a small family occupation. This lowers the cost of actively using electricity in a home and is a far better alternative to standard electricity systems.
- Water saving: The home had a 5000 L rainwater tank installed to collect and use water where necessary. This enables reductions in active water usage as it is connected to the toilets, laundry, and gardens.
4.5. Darwin River
- Design response: The home was designed to cater to the needs of the couple that owned the home. This means that processes were put in place to combat the hot temperatures of the location along with the risks that were present. Additionally, the couple wanted green building initiatives to be used throughout the construction of the home. The designer and builder worked together to meet the needs of the owners and ultimately included passive design, recycled materials, passive cooling, water saving, natural lighting, and greenhouse gas reductions.
- The green building inclusions were set out as below:
- Embodied energy reduction: The area is highly susceptible to fires and termite attacks; therefore, the construction of the home used no timber. The alternative chosen was steel and cement sheeting, which are both long-lasting materials that will inevitably lower the embodied energy.
- Greenhouse gas reduction: Since the home uses all renewable energy, the home’s average greenhouse gas emissions are far lower than that of the standard Australian home. The solar power features of the home completely reduce the need for active energy usage.
- Reducing mains water usage: When constructing the home, the owners chose not to connect the water main. Instead, rainwater is used for all of the necessary water through three rainwater tanks and the roof. The entire storage possible for rainwater is 100,000 L and it is processed through filtering when required to drink. Not connecting the main is an effective method to completely cut out active water. However, when there is a lack of rain, it could pose issues of water insufficiency.
- Renewable energy production: The entire home (except the gas stove and oven) uses renewable energy sources. In this case, the renewable energy is solar power. Solar power is an important feature, as the climate is more often warm with the sun shining than cold, and, therefore, the home receives enormous amounts of power.
4.6. Overall Result Deliberation
5. Conclusions
- (a)
- Green building initiatives are not difficult to apply. When building with green initiatives, several small changes can be made to the home that enormously change its environmental friendliness and energy exertion. An example of this is installing rainwater tanks to limit the amount of active water use.
- (b)
- Green building initiatives can be cost efficient. As witnessed through the case studies, most of the cost effectiveness does not occur with the method or material itself, but in the saving that is applied when the method or material is used.
- (c)
- Natural lighting plays a large role in the amount of active lighting used within a home. Effective natural lighting within a home due to the orientation and types of windows greatly reduces the need for active lighting. The result of superior natural lighting is reduced energy usage.
- (d)
- The orientation, design, and sealing of penetrations greatly improve passive heating and cooling. Self-explanatorily, this area of the green building enables the home to passively heat and cool itself, which, in turn, reduces the amount of necessary active heating and cooling, ultimately seeing reductions in energy and greenhouse gas emissions.
- (e)
- The use of rainwater tanks reduces the amount of mains water used when connected to key areas of the home (toilet, laundry, garden). The inclusion of a rainwater tank reduces active water usage and enables cost savings.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Building size | 125 m2 |
Size of land | 190 m2 |
National Construction Code energy efficiency rating | 3.2 stars—Rated out of 10 using the NatHERS |
Thermal comfort rating | Original house NatHERS 1.8 stars: Heating 370 MJ/m2/year Cooling 36 MJ/m2/year Total 406 MJ/m2/year Complete house post renovation NatHERS 3.2 stars: Heating 232 MJ/m2/year Cooling 18 MJ/m2/year Total 250 MJ/m2/year |
Green building features | 2000 L steel rainwater tank Argon-filled double glazing Clerestory windows Concrete slab with cement replacement and recycled aggregates Double-glazed skylight with toughened low e-glass Energy-efficient appliances Evacuated tube solar hot water system Glass wool batts insulation Insulative paint additive Light-emitting wall-hung toilet suite and taps Natural rubber floor tiles and low volatile organic compound (VOC) adhesive Reclaimed kitchen benchtop and cabinetry Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels Zero-VOC paint |
Building size | 228 m2 |
Size of land | 825 m2 |
National Construction Code energy efficiency rating | 7½ stars—Rated out of 10 using the NatHERS |
Thermal comfort rating | NatHERS rating 7½ stars Heating 65.6 MJ/m2/year Cooling 17.3 MJ/m2/year Total 82.9 MJ/m2/year |
Green building features | Bamboo flooring Double-glazed windows and doors Effectively sealed building with minimal gaps Evacuated tube solar hot water system Hydronic heating Light-emitting diode (LED) lighting Low-VOC paint and finishes North-facing design Rainwater tank Reconstituted timber cladding |
Building size | 125 m2 |
Size of land | 330 m2 |
National Construction Code energy efficiency rating | 7.9 stars—Rated out of 10 using the NatHERS |
Thermal comfort rating | Original house NatHERS 1.5 stars: Heating 410 MJ/m2/year Cooling 52 MJ/m2/year Total 462 MJ/m2/year Complete house post renovation NatHERS 7.9 stars: Heating 21.4 MJ/m2/year Cooling 23.4 MJ/m2/year Total 44.8 MJ/m2/year |
Green building features | Ceiling fans with no other mechanical heating or cooling Double-glazed windows Drought-tolerant garden Heat pump hot water system Insulation, R2.2 insulation in all walls, and R6 bulk insulation in the ceiling LED lighting Monitoring systems to track internal temperature, humidity, energy consumption, and solar PV production Passive design Rainwater trans with a total capacity of 7000 L Reverse brick veneer Sealed building fabric Solar PV panels Structural insulated panels (SIPs) Thermal mass Zero-VOC paint and floor treatments |
Building size | 150 m2 |
Size of land | 320 m2 |
National Construction Code energy efficiency rating | 10 stars—Rated out of 10 using the NatHERS |
Thermal comfort rating | NatHERS rating 10 stars Heating 4.2 MJ/m2/year Cooling 5.1 MJ/m2/year Total 9.4 MJ/m2/year |
Green building features | Concrete slab Energy-saving windows Energy-efficient appliances Insulation Lightweight construction Rainwater tank Reverse brick veneer Solar PV panels |
Building size | 177 m2 |
Size of land | 80 hectares |
National Construction Code energy efficiency rating | 6½ stars—Rated out of 10 using the NatHERS |
Thermal comfort rating | NatHERS rating 6½ stars Heating 0.6 MJ/m2/year Cooling 211.8 MJ/m2/year Total 211.9 MJ/m2/year |
Green building features | Solar hot water system Solar photovoltaic system Wastewater management Renewable energy production Greenhouse gas reduction |
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McKenna, J.; Harris, S.; Heinrich, K.; Stewart, T.; Gharehbaghi, K. The Evaluation of Green Building’s Feasibility: Comparative Analysis across Different Geological Conditions. Eng 2023, 4, 2034-2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030115
McKenna J, Harris S, Heinrich K, Stewart T, Gharehbaghi K. The Evaluation of Green Building’s Feasibility: Comparative Analysis across Different Geological Conditions. Eng. 2023; 4(3):2034-2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030115
Chicago/Turabian StyleMcKenna, Jessica, Sophia Harris, Kris Heinrich, Taylor Stewart, and Koorosh Gharehbaghi. 2023. "The Evaluation of Green Building’s Feasibility: Comparative Analysis across Different Geological Conditions" Eng 4, no. 3: 2034-2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030115
APA StyleMcKenna, J., Harris, S., Heinrich, K., Stewart, T., & Gharehbaghi, K. (2023). The Evaluation of Green Building’s Feasibility: Comparative Analysis across Different Geological Conditions. Eng, 4(3), 2034-2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng4030115