Three main research issues were addressed to enable the evaluation of risks of concrete cracking induced by corrosion of concrete-embedded Al- and Zn-containing metallic objects. Each issue is discussed in the following based on generated research findings.
3.1. Is There a Risk of Corrosion-Induced Cracking of Concrete Saturated with Oxygen-Free Groundwater and Exposed at Oxygen Free Conditions Simulating the Final Repository of Low and Intermediate Waste Including Aluminium—And Zinc Objects from Nuclear Facilities?
Bubbles were observed on the surface of the Al containing concrete cylinders within minutes after casting the last layer of concrete,
Figure 2a. The effect was also evident after curing for 20 h,
Figure 2b.
All concrete cylinders were, after removal from the AGW, visually inspected for the presence of cracks which are indicative of internal stresses caused by gas evolution from the corrosion process or by expanding volumes of evolved corrosion products. Independent on the material embedded inside the concrete, no cracks were observed in any of the cylinders exposed for either 2, 4, 12, 24 or 52 weeks, as seen in
Figure 3a. However, two of the five cylinders with embedded Al revealed after 104 weeks of exposure evident cracks originating from the embedded Al sample surfaces all the way to the outside of the cement cylinder,
Figure 3b. The width of the cracks, up to 3 mm, indicates that the underlying mechanism is internal pressure caused by gas evolution from the corrosion process and/or expanding corrosion product volumes as naturally formed cracks due to shrinkage or expansion during curing of the concrete would be hairline thick [
19]. It is also unlikely that the concrete cylinders would crack from the shrinking process during drying as the cylinders were kept moist during the first 24 h of settling and curing before immediately immersed in AGW. One gas vent leading from the embedded Al samples to the top of the concrete surface was observed for each of the Al-containing cylinders. These vents, marked by the red arrow in
Figure 2b, were formed during the curing step. Their presence, which allows the removal of gas formed during the corrosion process, indicates that gas pressure did not have any significant impact on the cracking of the concrete. Rather, these failures were effects of the expanding volume of formed corrosion products. No cracking of the Zn containing cylinders was observed during exposure in AGW and no gas vents were observed either during casting, curing or exposure.
When dismounting the metal samples from the concrete cylinders after the different exposure periods, a majority of the Al-containing cylinders cracked into multiple pieces revealing voids of varying size directly above the exposed metal sample,
Figure 4a. These voids had formed by the evolution of hydrogen gas as the Al samples immediately started to corrode in contact with the strongly alkaline (pH 12.5) concrete environment. The rapid initial corrosion also resulted in a large amount of corrosion products causing poor adhesion between the Al samples and the concrete. Consequently, the Al samples were very easy to remove after exposure from the concrete as they essentially were loose and spontaneously detached. Cracking of the cement cylinders also revealed cross sections of the gas vents as the cylinders tended to crack along the vents where the mechanical strength of the concrete was diminished. It was clear that the vents reached all the way through the concrete from the Al sample inside the cylinder to the upper outer surface, as seen in
Figure 4b.
The Zn containing concrete cylinders generally broke into two halves when cracked indicating a higher structural integrity of the concrete compared with the Al containing cylinders. Most cylinders contained small voids in connection with the samples. This indicates that some gas evolution occurred initially but was not sufficient to create gas vents to the surface of the concrete, as seen in
Figure 5a,b, as no gas vents to the surface were observed. The majority of the exposed Zn samples was firmly attached to the concrete without any significant visually observed formation of corrosion products. The samples had to be carefully chiselled out as not to damage their surfaces.
In all, corrosion of both Al and Zn embedded in concrete will cause gas evolution powerful enough to create voids in the concrete. This effect was more severe for Al as vents formed already during the curing which enabled the gas to exit from the concrete cylinder. These vents can act as routes for transportation of both corrosive species into the concrete cylinder and also allow for transport of potentially radioactive species from the intended containment. The structural integrity of all concrete cylinders containing Zn was intact even after 2 years of exposure in oxygen free AGW and no cracks were visually observed. The integrity of the Al containing concrete cylinders was intact for the first 2–52 weeks of exposure. However, after 2 years (104 weeks) 40% of the concrete cylinders suffered from substantial cracking that could only have been caused by the internal influence from the corrosion process of Al.
3.2. How Fast Will Aluminium and Zinc Objects from Dismantled Nuclear Power Plants Corrode with Time at Anaerobic Conditions When Embedded in Concrete Saturated with Oxygen-Free Groundwater and What Corrosion Products Are Formed?
It is well known that Al rapidly corrodes at pH values exceeding 9 [
7]. Reported corrosion rates in alkaline aqueous solutions ranges between 22 and 670 g m
−2 year
−1 (8.1–248 µm year
−1) [
6]. As a result, high corrosion rates of Al were expected when exposed in concrete (pH 12.5 ± 0.2). Corrosion rates of 20 µm year
−1 have been reported for Zn–Al alloys (12 wt.% Al) exposed at aerobic conditions in concrete [
2]. These rates were by far exceeded by the rates measured in concrete in this study (
Figure 6 and
Table 2). The initial corrosion rate was equal to 2700 g m
−2 year
−1 after 2 weeks (based on triplicate samples), as seen in
Figure 6a, assuming a constant corrosion rate extrapolated to 1 year. The variation in corrosion rates between the triplicate samples was large for the two initial exposure time periods, 2 and 4 weeks, and no significant reduction in corrosion rates was observed until after 12 weeks. After 26 weeks, the corrosion rate was substantially reduced and the variation between the triplicate samples was significantly smaller, 443 g m
−2 year
−1. A reduction in corrosion rate was expected due to the gradual formation of corrosion products formed on the Al surfaces able to act as a physical barrier slowing down the passage of ions and corrosive species. Interestingly enough, the Al samples exposed within the cracked concrete cylinders exposed for 2 years did not show any different corrosion rates compared with uncracked cylinders (all in the range 309 ± 20 g m
−2 year
−1). As the test was terminated after this exposure time, and no inspection of the cylinders was performed in-between 1 and 2 years of exposure, the exact time for the fracture is unknown. How long the crack in the concrete had been open for transport of AGW into the embedded poorly adherent Al samples is, hence, unknown. It could be that it fractured shortly before the test was terminated and that an increased transport of AGW into the Al surface was not sufficient to influence the corrosion rate. It could also be that the barrier properties of the corrosion products were sufficient to slow down any effect of corrosive species. It should, thus, be kept in mind that cracking of the cylinders may have an influence on the corrosion rates. However, measured corrosion rates are of the same order of magnitude indicating minor implications of such a scenario.
Zn generally shows lower documented corrosion rates at alkaline conditions compared with Al and can according to simplified systems [
2,
20] be expected to be in a passive state at pH 12 ± 0.5. However, high initial corrosion rates were determined after 2 weeks (360 g m
−2 year
−1) (
Figure 6b and
Table 2), but decreased rapidly to substantially lower rates after 26 weeks (17 g m
−2 year
−1) and 104 weeks (6 g m
−2 year
−1). Corrosion rates of 0.2–1.1 µm year
-1 have been reported in previous studies of galvanised rebars exposed in concrete for 10 years in marine environments [
2], and correlate well with the results obtained in this study. The variation between the triplicate samples exposed for 2 weeks was comparatively large. This is most probably a result of surface reactivity variations between the unexposed freshly abraded sample surfaces that decreased with time as stable corrosion products formed on the surface creating a uniform physical barrier slowing down the corrosion process. Observed differences in initial corrosion rates, for both Al and Zn, are also a consequence of the porosity of the AGW saturated concrete adjacent to the embedded metal forming local corrosion cells, which influence the electrochemical dissolution process [
21]. After 12 weeks of exposure in concrete there were only small variations (13%) between triplicate samples, and even smaller for the samples exposed for 26, 52 and 104 weeks (≈2%). The observation of uniformly corroded samples without any observation of locally corroded areas supports the conclusion that the initial large variation between triplicate samples predominantly was caused by variations in surface characteristics of the freshly prepared unexposed surfaces.
The morphology of the corrosion products on the concrete-embedded Al and Zn surfaces after 1 year of exposure is illustrated in
Figure 7. Elemental analysis by means of EDS revealed the predominance of Al and O for the Al sample, and of Zn and O for the Zn sample. Both metals revealed the presence of C and Ca. These results are in accordance with findings with XRD that resulted in diffractograms that revealed significant peak overlap, especially for Zn, which complicated a detailed identification of corrosion products,
Figure 7.
Al(OH)
3 was the predominant corrosion product on the Al samples. No crystalline phases that directly could be related to the concrete constituents were observed. This was most probably a result of the rapid corrosion process and gas evolution taking place when the Al samples were inserted into the wet concrete. The gas created a narrow space between the concrete and the Al samples preventing incorporation of concrete into the corrosion products. The formation of thick corrosion products and continued evolution of gas further caused porous and partially non-adherent corrosion products that were left at the concrete interface when cracked open. FTIR analysis performed after the shorter exposure periods supported the findings of Al(OH)
3 and implied the presence of both amorphous Al
2O
3 and CaCO
3 (
Figure 8a).
Since the investigations were performed on samples after exposure without any treatment or attempt to remove any residues from the concrete on the surface, concrete was still present on the surfaces of the samples. The incorporation of concrete constituents into the corrosion products on the Zn samples was therefore impossible to avoid without risking removing, changing or destroying the corrosion products. Both XRD and FTIR findings revealed spectra with overlapping peaks, which hampered their interpretation. The incorporation of concrete constituents into the corrosion products was evident. XRD revealed the presence of two crystalline compounds that could be related to the corrosion process, i.e., Zn(OH)
2 and Ca(Zn(OH)
3)
2·2H
2O. The FTIR results (
Figure 8b) supported the presence of both Zn(OH)
2 as well as CaCO
3 and indicated the presence of amorphous Zn
5(CO
3)
2(OH)
6.
In all, the initial corrosion rates determined for Al embedded in concrete at the anaerobic AGW conditions were significantly higher compared with reported corrosion rates for Al exposed in alkaline aerated aqueous solutions, but decreased with time to similar levels. No significant differences in corrosion rates were observed for the embedded Al samples exposed in the intact and cracked concrete cylinders. This implies that the corrosion rate limiting step is controlled by the barrier properties of the corrosion products formed on the Al surface and not by the transport/diffusion of corrosive species through the concrete.
The embedded Zn samples in concrete displayed similar corrosion rates as rates of galvanised reinforcement bars reported in the literature.
Hydroxides and to some extent carbonates were the main corrosion products found on both Al and Zn after exposure in concrete.
3.3. Given the Case That Concrete Cracking Occurs in the Repository for Short Lived Radioactive Waste—How Fast Will Al- and Zn-Based Objects Corrode in Oxygen-Free Artificial Ground Water?
With the fracturing of the concrete cylinders and the subsequent possibility of free transport of AGW, ions and corrosive species to and from the embedded metal surfaces, it was considered important to investigate differences between the corrosion of the Al and Zn metals in concrete and in AGW only. As discussed in the previous section, no significant difference in corrosion rates between the intact and cracked cylinders could be distinguished after 2 years of exposure of the Al samples. In addition, it was not possible to determine when the cylinders cracked and for how long the cracks allowed for free transport of AGW into the metal surfaces. However, these results suggest that the corrosion rate determining step was the barrier effect of formed corrosion products rather than direct surface contact with AGW. This hypothesis was supported by the corrosion rates determined for Al exposed in AGW only (
Figure 9a and
Table 3).
The initial corrosion rates of the Al samples in AGW were after 2 weeks (8326 g m
−2 year
−1) and 4 weeks (3856 g m
−2 year
−1), substantially higher (≈68 and 47%, respectively) compared with corresponding rates when exposed embedded in concrete,
Figure 5a,b and
Table 3. However, after 12 weeks of exposure, the corrosion rates were very similar and remained almost the same as in concrete after 24, 52 and 104 weeks of exposure (146 g m
−2 year
−1 after 2 years) (
Figure 5a and
Figure 9a and
Table 2 and
Table 3). The similarity between the two different exposure conditions (concrete immersed in AGW and AGW only) strongly implies that the formation and barrier properties of corrosion products formed on the surface of the Al samples govern the rate limiting steps. It can also be concluded that exposures in AGW could, at least for the longer exposure times, be used to predict corrosion rates of Al in concrete at given conditions, and that cracks forming in the concrete should not speed up the corrosion process.
Albeit, the concrete cylinders containing the Zn samples did not crack during the 2-year exposure, investigations of the corrosion behaviour of Zn in AGW only is of importance. If the corrosion rates are comparable, testing in AGW is a simpler procedure in order to evaluate long-term corrosion rates compared with testing of embedded samples in concrete. Zn corroded at a rate of 172 g m
−2 y
−1 after 2 weeks (
Figure 9b and
Table 3), that is about half the corrosion rate determined when embedded in concrete,
Figure 5b and
Table 2. However, after longer exposure time periods the corrosion rates were similar. This suggests that the testing in AGW for the given exposure conditions can be used to predict corrosion rates of Zn embedded in concrete. The variation between the triplicate samples was initially (after 2 weeks) very small (
Figure 9b and
Table 3). Larger variations (41–84%) were observed after 12, 52 and 104 weeks. Observed differences in corrosion rates between the exposures in concrete and in AGW may be caused by deficiencies in the experimental set up for the AGW investigation. Exposures in the latter tests were made with the cylindrical samples lying down in the test vessel, a condition that created a rather large contact area between the Zn sample and the test vessel and hence suitable conditions for crevice corrosion. It would have been desirable to use of a different vessel that ensured a small contact area between the sample and the vessel. However, in order to achieve identical exposure conditions for Al and Zn it was necessary to use vessels capable of withstanding the high pressure that was induced by the initially extensive gas evolution taking place during the corrosion of Al. Several types of vessels were tested and only one met the requirements as most vessels were not gas tight and allowed for spontaneous removal of the AGW as it was pushed out of the vessels by the over-pressure created by the gas formed by the corrosion process. The disadvantage of the selected vessels was that they required the cylindrical samples to lie down at the bottom of the vessel. However, this parameter was considered less critical than the removal of the AGW from the vessels.
The Zn samples exposed in AGW were initially (2–4 weeks) visually very similarly corroded to the samples exposed in concrete with no signs of localised corrosion. For the longer exposure times, the area of the Zn samples in contact with the bottom of the vessel was partly covered by white corrosion products (
Figure 10a). After the pickling procedure it was evident that local corrosion processes had been progressing in these areas (
Figure 10b). These results explain the slightly higher corrosion rates in AGW compared with concrete. The surfaces only in contact with AGW did not show any signs of localised corrosion.
As the entire surfaces of the Al samples were heavily corroded and covered with thick corrosion products no specific areas could be connected with localised corrosion or be determined to have been in contact with the bottom of the vessel.
No identification of the corrosion products formed on any of the samples exposed in AGW was conducted within the framework of this study. The composition is though anticipated to be the same, or at least similar, as observed when the metals were exposed in concrete.
In all, Al and Zn displayed similar corrosion rates when exposed in AGW compared to when embedded in concrete, immersed in AGW at deaerated conditions. This suggests that crack formation of concrete, that potentially can take place during final repository conditions, is not expected to speed up the corrosion process. The results elucidate further that long-term corrosion rates of Zn and Al embedded in concrete can be estimated from exposures in AGW only.