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Volume 8
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10.3390/heritage8120544
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

A Comprehensive Protocol for the Life Cycle Assessment of Green Systems for Painting Cleaning

by
Andrea Macchia
1,
Benedetta Paolino
2,
Camilla Zaratti
3,*,
Fernanda Prestileo
4,
Federica Sacco
5,
Mauro Francesco La Russa
6 and
Silvestro Antonio Ruffolo
6
1
YOCOCU APS—Youth in Conservation of Cultural Heritage, Via Tasso 108, 00185 Rome, Italy
2
Italian Ministry of Culture, National Museums of Siena, Via di San Pietro 29, 53100 Siena, Italy
3
Sciences and Chemical Technologies Department, Tor Vergata University Rome, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
4
National Research Council-Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (CNR-ISAC), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133 Rome, Italy
5
ICOM—International Council of Museums Italy-PSE, Palazzo Lombardia 1, entrata n. 3, 20124 Milan, Italy
6
Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Sciences (DiBEST), University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Heritage 2025, 8(12), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120544 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 4 November 2025 / Revised: 4 December 2025 / Accepted: 15 December 2025 / Published: 17 December 2025
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Abstract

The environmental sustainability of cleaning materials used in heritage conservation remains poorly quantified despite growing attention to the replacement of hazardous petroleum-based solvents with bio-based alternatives. This study applies a comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment (LCIA) to compare conventional solvents with innovative bio-based formulations, including Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAMEs), Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES), and aqueous or organogel systems used for cleaning painted surfaces. Following ISO 14040/14044 standards and using the Ecoinvent v3.8 database with the EF 3.1 impact method, three functional units were adopted to reflect material and system-level scales. Results demonstrate that water-rich systems, such as agar gels and emulsified organogels, yield significantly lower climate and toxicity impacts (up to 85–90% reduction) compared with petroleum-based benchmarks, while FAME and DES exhibit outcomes highly dependent on allocation rules and baseline datasets. When including application materials, cotton wipes dominate total environmental burdens, emphasizing that system design outweighs solvent substitution in improving sustainability. The study provides reproducible data and methodological insights for integrating LCIA into conservation decision-making, contributing to the transition toward evidence-based and environmentally responsible heritage practices.
Keywords: life cycle assessment; green solvents; organogels; aqueous gels; cultural heritage; sustainable conservation life cycle assessment; green solvents; organogels; aqueous gels; cultural heritage; sustainable conservation
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MDPI and ACS Style

Macchia, A.; Paolino, B.; Zaratti, C.; Prestileo, F.; Sacco, F.; La Russa, M.F.; Ruffolo, S.A. A Comprehensive Protocol for the Life Cycle Assessment of Green Systems for Painting Cleaning. Heritage 2025, 8, 544. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120544

AMA Style

Macchia A, Paolino B, Zaratti C, Prestileo F, Sacco F, La Russa MF, Ruffolo SA. A Comprehensive Protocol for the Life Cycle Assessment of Green Systems for Painting Cleaning. Heritage. 2025; 8(12):544. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120544

Chicago/Turabian Style

Macchia, Andrea, Benedetta Paolino, Camilla Zaratti, Fernanda Prestileo, Federica Sacco, Mauro Francesco La Russa, and Silvestro Antonio Ruffolo. 2025. "A Comprehensive Protocol for the Life Cycle Assessment of Green Systems for Painting Cleaning" Heritage 8, no. 12: 544. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120544

APA Style

Macchia, A., Paolino, B., Zaratti, C., Prestileo, F., Sacco, F., La Russa, M. F., & Ruffolo, S. A. (2025). A Comprehensive Protocol for the Life Cycle Assessment of Green Systems for Painting Cleaning. Heritage, 8(12), 544. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8120544

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