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Article

First Test and Characterizations on Urban Glass Waste with Waste-Derived Carbon Fiber Treated to Realize Foam Glass for Possible Construction Applications

by
Zakim Hussain
1,*,
Seyed Mostafa Nouri
1,
Matteo Sambucci
1,2 and
Marco Valente
1,2
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Materials, Environment, Sapienza University of Rome, 00184 Rome, Italy
2
INSTM Reference Laboratory for Engineering of Surface Treatments, UdR Rome, Sapienza University of Rome, 00184 Rome, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Ceramics 2025, 8(2), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020073
Submission received: 10 May 2025 / Revised: 12 June 2025 / Accepted: 13 June 2025 / Published: 17 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ceramics in the Circular Economy for a Sustainable World)
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Abstract

:
Urban glass waste is a significant by-product of residential areas, while scrap carbon fiber is a prevalent industrial by-product. This study explores an innovative approach to valorize these materials by producing foam glass (FG) for versatile applications, particularly in construction. A key challenge in FG production is enhancing its properties to meet increasingly stringent application-specific standards. The properties of FG are intrinsically linked to its porous structure, which depends on factors such as the foaming process. The oxidation of carbon fibers at high temperatures can induce a foaming effect, creating a porous matrix in the glass. This research investigates the effect of powdered recycled carbon fiber (PRCF)—an alternative method for recovering waste carbon fiber as a foaming agent for FG. PRCF was added at concentrations of 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% by mass relative to powdered waste glass. Increasing PRCF content enhanced foaming and improved porosity, with total porosity rising from 47.18% at 0.5% PRCF to 65.54% at 1.5% PRCF, accompanied by a 50% reduction in compressive strength and a 68% decrease in thermal conductivity. The results demonstrate the feasibility of large-scale FG production with enhanced properties, achieved without substantial additional investment and by recovering two waste materials. This process supports sustainable development by promoting waste valorization and advancing circular economy principles.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Foam glass is a porous material characterized by numerous closed or interconnected pores, typically ranging in size from nanometers to micrometers. FG exhibits remarkable properties, including low density, high strength, and excellent insulating ability [1,2,3,4], heat resistance, chemical resistance, low water absorption, and a practically unlimited service life. These superior properties, compared to those of organic and fibrous insulation materials, have attracted growing interest and expanded its range of applications [5,6]. This material can be produced with a high degree of purity, and its pore sizes can be controlled and adjusted to suit specific applications.
Foam glass is made by combining glass powder with a foaming agent (graphite (C), silicon carbide (SiC), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), and calcium carbonate (CaCO3)), which release gas at high temperatures, forming a lightweight, porous material with good insulation and structural properties [7]. Common glass powder includes waste glasses and industrial byproducts. FG quality depends on key process parameters such as sintering temperature, heating rate, glass powder particle size, and foaming agent type, all of which affect pore formation, mechanical strength, and thermal performance. The optimal control of these factors is essential for producing high-quality foam glass [8,9,10]. The effectiveness of a foaming agent in FG production depends on its gas-releasing behavior and interaction with the glass matrix [11,12]. Both the type of foaming agent and the particle size distribution of glass powder critically influence foam morphology, thermal insulation, and mechanical properties [12]. Finer glass powder enhances pore uniformity, strength, and insulation, while coarser glass powder leads to irregular pores and reduced structural integrity [13].
FG is available in various forms, including powders, granules, and larger-shaped pieces, making it highly versatile for diverse applications [14]. In the construction industry, FG is used as a lightweight fill material, a water retention medium for landscaping, a subgrade improvement material, and an aggregate for lightweight concrete [15,16,17,18]. FG’s closed-porous structure makes it ideal for thermal insulation and water-resistant applications, while its open-porous structure provides sound insulation and water absorption capabilities, making it useful in metro stations and gardens [19].
Over the last two decades, researchers have increasingly focused on using waste glass to produce FG. This approach aligns with the principles of the circular economy, transforming waste into valuable resources and reducing environmental impact [20,21,22]. But the relationship between the foaming agent, glass powder particle size, and desired foam glass properties highlights the importance of controlling pore size distribution to optimize performance across applications. However, the precise functional links between key factors such as pore size distribution, heating rate, density, and sintering temperature, and FG properties like compressive strength and porosity remain insufficiently explored. This gap has hindered the efficient design and production of foam glass. Therefore, a systematic methodology is urgently needed to optimize FG preparation by accounting for these critical variables. However, enhancing FG’s properties remains a key research challenge to meet evolving application standards.
This study explores the feasibility of reusing urban glass waste by incorporating powdered recycled carbon fiber as a foaming agent for FG production. Experimental investigations focused on the effect of PRCF concentration on the foaming and density of foam glass for enhancing FG’s performance for mechanical and structural applications.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Raw Materials

2.1.1. Powdered Waste Glass

Urban waste glass bottles were collected from public waste bins in Rome and washed with water to remove plastic labels. The bottles were then crushed into small pieces using a hammer. Subsequently, 200 g of these fragments were ground into a fine powder using a Retsch PM 100 planetary ball (Retsch GmbH, Haan, Germany) mill at 250 rpm for 30 min. The milling process involved six large steel balls (19.05 mm in diameter, 29 g per ball) and thirty-five smaller steel balls (6.35 mm in diameter, 1.25 g per ball). The procedure for preparing powdered waste glass is illustrated in Figure 1.
The chemical composition of the glass powder (Figure 2), analyzed using Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (Octane Elect EDS system, Edax, Mahwah, NJ, USA), confirmed the predominant presence of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O), the main components of silica glass. The presence of gold (Au) indicates that the sample was coated with a thin gold layer, a common practice to prevent charging effects during SEM/EDS analysis by making the sample conductive.
Secondary elements, including sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), and calcium (Ca), were also detected, possibly due to modifications, contamination, or the material being soda-lime-based silica glass. Calcium (Ca) appears at multiple positions, suggesting the presence of calcium-containing impurities or additives such as CaO or CaCO3.

2.1.2. Powdered Recycled Carbon Fiber

Figure 3 presents the flowchart to produce powdered recycled carbon fiber, implemented in this study. This material is obtained by milling secondary waste carbon fiber, a by-product of woven/non-woven fabric production [23]. The waste, appearing as fluffy carbon agglomerates of different dimensions, was supplied by Carbon Task Srl (Biella, Italy).
During fabric production, 30–50 kg of secondary waste carbon fiber is generated per ton of processed recycled carbon fiber (RCF). The morphology of powdered recycled carbon fiber was examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Tescan MIRA 3 FEG-SEM, Brno, Czech Republic), revealing small fiber particles with non-uniform shapes after ball milling. This material was previously used by the authors as a filler for producing 3D printable thermoplastic composites [24]. Its density is reported as 1.917 g/cm3, and the average fiber length is 30 ± 12 µm.

2.2. FG Sample Preparation

To prepare the dry mixture, 15 g of powdered waste glass was manually mixed in a becker with powdered recycled carbon fiber at weight concentrations of 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%. Subsequently, 30 drops of tap water were added and stirred thoroughly to achieve homogeneity. The wet mixture was placed into molds and compressed using a hand press to form samples. The samples were dried at 100 °C temperature in the oven for 24 h to remove the moisture. After that samples underwent thermal treatment in a Lindberg oven (Lindberg/MPH, Riverside, MI, USA) at 950 °C for 20 min. Four samples were prepared for each powdered recycled carbon fiber concentration. Note that the drying stage was performed solely to measure the density of the dried state of the material. FG production can proceed without this step, with wet samples directly placed in the 950 °C oven. Figure 4 illustrates the preparation process of foam glass samples.

2.3. Testing Techniques

2.3.1. Setup for Optical Microscopic Analysis of Pores

To obtain detailed morphological information of pores in foamed glass, the samples were first polished first, and then the microscopic observations were undertaken using a Nikon Eclipse L150 optical microscope (Nikon Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) at 5× magnifications, respectively. In the above technique, FG samples were placed under the lens and analyzed to identify sizes of pores at 20 different points. The microphotographs were acquired using software Lucia v3.

2.3.2. Density and Porosity Measurements

Bulk density, true density, open porosity, closed porosity, and total porosity were determined based on the method described by described by previous researchers [25], with some modifications. For bulk density measurements, a modified approach was employed. In contrast to previous researchers, who used regular cubic samples and a geometric method, samples in this study were coated with paraffin wax to prevent water infiltration into open pores. The coating was applied by brushing melted paraffin onto the sample surfaces. Density was measured using a commercial density determination kit (Mettler Toledo ME54, Columbus, OH, USA). The bulk density of the uncoated samples was calculated by subtracting the mass and volume contributions of the paraffin coating.
True density was assessed using six smaller samples, each approximately half the size of the original samples, with two samples allocated per powdered recycled carbon fiber percentage. These samples were distinct from those used for bulk density measurements. Measurements were averaged, and the mean value was reported as the true density.
Open porosity was determined by extending the soaking time in bi-distilled water to 18 h, ensuring complete water penetration into the open pores. This deviates from the original method by Zhai et al. [25], which utilized a 2 h soaking duration. The reported bulk density and porosity values represent the averages obtained from three samples, each nearly half the size of the originally prepared specimens for each formulation.

2.3.3. Setup for Thermal Conductivity Analysis

A C-Therm TCi thermal analyzer (C-Therm Technologies, Fredericton, NB, Canada) was used to assess the thermal conductivity (Figure S1) of the FG samples according to [26]. Measurements were made at room temperature of FG samples. The thermal conductivity values for each glass-PRCF formulation were obtained by considering two test samples on which three scans were performed.

2.3.4. Setup for Compression Puncture Test

The compression puncture tests (Figure S2) were carried out for each sample with the universal mechanical machine Zwick/Roell Z010 (Zwick/Roell, Ulm, Germany) equipped with a load cell of 10 kN. The diameter of the compression stainless-steel puncture tester was 10 mm, and a rigid PVC support was used to prevent contact between the puncture and the metal plate, thereby avoiding any damage to the system. The trend of each percentage of PRCF sample during the compression test was recorded with a speed of 1 mm/min. The results of the compression test were expressed in terms of maximum compression load. Four specimens were tested for each formulation, and the average values, along with their standard deviations, were calculated.

2.3.5. Microstructure Analysis via SEM

The FG sample was cut into very small pieces measuring 2 × 3 mm3 and gold-coated using an Edwards S150B sputter coater (Edwards Ltd., Burgess Hill, UK) to improve electrical conductivity before placing it in the SEM. The porous structure and undecomposed PRCF particles in the FG sample were investigated.

3. Results and Discussion

The amount of foaming agent, such as carbon, has a significant impact on the foaming effects of the final products. Based on previous works, we altered the PRCF amount from 0.5 wt.% to 1.5 wt.% under a sintering temperature of 950 °C to investigate the amount of PRCF that yields an optimal combination of mechanical and physical properties [27,28,29].
The images of polished and fractured surfaces of FG samples (Figure 5) reveal a correlation between the PRCF ratio and the foaming of samples. The foaming effect is created due to the oxidation of carbon atoms during the heating process, forming a porous structure in the softened glass matrix. When the ratio of carbon increases, more CO2 is produced, leading to an increase in foaming inside the glass matrix. This phenomenon underscores the impact of the PRCF ratio on foaming formation [30].

3.1. Optical Microscopic Analysis of Pores

The optical microscopic analysis of polished FG samples demonstrated the morphologies of pores, and it can also be seen in Figure 6 that there are still undecomposed PRCF particles in the red selected areas. The size of pores also enlarged with respect to increasing the percentage of PRCF particles. Figure 6 also demonstrated that more pores are distributed narrowly with a small diameter (µm) range in the FG sample, having a lower PRCF percentage as compared to samples having higher PRCF ratio.

3.2. Thermal Conductivity Analysis

The bar chart shown by Figure 7 illustrates the relationship between the %PRCF content and the thermal conductivity (k) of FG.
The data shows a clear decreasing trend in thermal conductivity as the PRCF percentage increases. At 0.5% PRCF, the thermal conductivity was 0.22 W/mK, which dropped to 0.12 W/mK for 1% PRCF and further decreased to 0.07 W/mK for 1.5% PRCF. It indicated that PRCF acts as a thermal insulator in foamed glass, likely due to increased porosity, changes in microstructure, or reduced heat conduction pathways [31]. This makes foamed glass with higher PRCF content potentially more suitable for applications requiring low thermal conductivity, such as thermal insulation in construction and industrial applications.

3.3. SEM Analysis

Figure 8 shows the SEM surface morphology of foam glass products, where the porous structure is created as a function of the carbon amount. When the PRCF decomposed under 950 °C, a nearly small- and large-sized almost spherical pore structure is achieved, but there are still undecomposed PRCF particles with irregular geometry which is increased with respect to a higher PRCF ratio of 1 wt.% and 1.5 wt.% at the same temperature. The physical and mechanical properties of the FG samples have been characterized in previous research. It is shown that both compressive strength and bulk density are minimal when the PRCF percentage is increasing; this should be attributable to the highest total porosity of the pore structure, which indicates a porous structure that leads to the lowest strength and density [25].

3.4. Compression Puncture Test

The relationship between the maximum compression load (Fmax in N) and the percentage of PRCF in FG samples is illustrated in Figure 9. The compression load decreases as the PRCF percentage increases in foamed glass. The highest compressive strength (1944.13 N) is observed at 0.5% PRCF, while the lowest strength (960.60 N) is recorded at 1.5% PRCF.
This suggests that while higher PRCF content improves insulation, it may compromise structural integrity. The decomposition of carbon in high-temperature conditions may not actually strengthen the silica network. Instead, it could potentially weaken it or alter its structure. The release of gases could cause expansion or even structural collapse, leading to a lower density [32]. Further research is needed to explore ways to enhance mechanical properties while retaining the insulation benefits of PRCF-infused foamed glass.

3.5. Density and Porosity

Figure 10 illustrates the true and bulk density values of foam glass samples. The bulk density exhibited a notable decrease as the percentage of PRCF increased.
Specifically, it dropped from 1.37 g/cm3 at 0.5% PRCF to 0.92 g/cm3 at 1.5% PRCF, reflecting a 33% reduction. This trend indicates that increasing PRCF content enhances pore formation within the glass matrix, resulting in a more porous structure. The decrease in bulk density aligns with the expected effects of foaming agents, which reduce the overall mass per unit volume of the material, thereby contributing to its lightweight properties.
However, increasing the PRCF content also affects the viscosity of molten glass. At higher concentrations, PRCF reinforces the silica network, increasing its internal resistance to flow because of a higher quantity of undecomposed PRCF particles. The SEM investigation in the above section clarified this aspect in Figure 11. This phenomenon could potentially limit further foaming if the viscosity becomes too high, restricting the bubble formation [33,34,35].
Figure 11 showcases the variations in open, closed, and total porosities of the foam glass samples. The porosity characteristics exhibited significant changes with increasing PRCF content. Total porosity increased from 47.18% at 0.5% PRCF to 65.54% at 1.5% PRCF, with closed porosity being the dominant component. Specifically, closed porosity rose from 45.07% to 61.48% over this range, while open porosity showed a modest increase from 2.11% to 3.06%. The prevalence of closed porosity is beneficial for thermal insulation applications, as it minimizes heat transfer through convective pathways [36]. Additionally, the marginal increase in open porosity suggests that most pores remain isolated rather than interconnected, which is advantageous for maintaining structural integrity and reducing moisture penetration [37].
The relationship between PRCF content and porosity can be attributed to the role of carbon fibers as nucleation sites for gas bubbles during the sintering process. As PRCF decomposes at high temperatures, it releases gases that become trapped within the glass matrix, forming closed pores [38,39]. The increase in pore size observed with higher PRCF percentages supports this mechanism, suggesting that more extensive gas release leads to larger, more numerous pores. This controlled pore formation is crucial for achieving the desired balance between thermal insulation performance and mechanical stability in foam glass materials [36,37]. The significant enhancement in total porosity, coupled with the low bulk density, underscores the potential of PRCF as an effective foaming agent in the production of lightweight, thermally efficient foam glasses [38].
The results validate the effectiveness of PRCF as a foaming agent for FG production, demonstrating its potential for lightweight and porous structural applications. Additionally, the successful use of urban glass waste and secondary carbon fiber waste supports sustainability efforts by reducing landfill waste and providing a cost-effective solution for producing environmentally friendly FG materials. The findings also underscore the importance of optimizing FG processing parameters to achieve desirable physical and mechanical characteristics. The developed methodology offers a sustainable approach to manufacturing FG, promoting waste recycling, and advancing circular economic principles.

4. Conclusions

This study demonstrated the feasibility of producing foam glass using powdered urban waste glass and powdered recycled carbon fibers as a foaming agent. Bubble growth and the viscous flow of the vitreous melt occurred throughout the entire foam formation process. The main factors influencing the foam structure were sintering temperature, sintering duration, and the weight percentage of the foaming agent relative to the glass powder. From the experimental and characteristics analysis, the following key findings were obtained.
  • The results revealed a direct correlation between PRCF concentration and the reduction in the density of FG samples. Density decreased from 1.37 g/cm3 at 0.5% PRCF to 0.92 g/cm3 at 1.5% PRCF, representing a 33% reduction. This trend indicates that increasing PRCF content promotes pore formation within the glass matrix, leading to a more porous structure.
  • Increasing the PRCF percentage resulted in a greater degree of foaming, driven by CO2 generation from PRCF oxidation. This resulted in a significant reduction in compressive strength by 50% and thermal conductivity by 68%, as PRCF content increased from 0.5% to 1.5%.
  • The findings also confirmed that PRCF effectively induces porosity in the glass matrix. Total porosity rising from 47.18% at 0.5% PRCF to 65.54% at 1.5% PRCF, which is supporting its potential application in lightweight construction materials.
Moreover, the successful use of urban glass waste and secondary carbon fiber waste aligns with sustainability objectives by promoting waste valorization and the principles of a circular economy. Future studies will explore the effects of different curing temperatures, mechanical properties, thermal conductivity, and microstructural characteristics to further optimize FG production and enhance its applicability in the construction and insulation industries.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ceramics8020073/s1. Figure S1. Experimental setup for thermal conductivity, and Figure S2. Setup for the compression puncture test.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.S. and M.V.; methodology, Z.H., S.M.N. and M.S.; validation, Z.H., S.M.N. and M.S.; investigation, Z.H. and S.M.N.; resources, M.V.; writing—original draft preparation Z.H. and S.M.N.; writing—review and editing, S.M.N. and M.S.; supervision, M.S. and M.V.; project administration, M.S. and M.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Christian Scopinich (Carbon Task Srl) for providing PRCF implemented in the research activity. A heartfelt acknowledgement also goes to Jacopo Tirillò and Fabrizio Sarasini for their availability and support in thermal conductivity measurements.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
FGFoam glass
PRCFPowdered recycled carbon fiber
RCFRecycled carbon fiber
SEMScanning electron microscope

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Figure 1. Procedure for the production of powered waste glass from urban waste glass.
Figure 1. Procedure for the production of powered waste glass from urban waste glass.
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Figure 2. Powdered glass compositional analysis using EDS along selected spot via SEM.
Figure 2. Powdered glass compositional analysis using EDS along selected spot via SEM.
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Figure 3. PRCF production flow chart.
Figure 3. PRCF production flow chart.
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Figure 4. The schematic diagram for sample preparation.
Figure 4. The schematic diagram for sample preparation.
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Figure 5. FG samples with different PRFG percentages.
Figure 5. FG samples with different PRFG percentages.
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Figure 6. Microscopical analysis of polished surfaces of FG samples and pores distribution.
Figure 6. Microscopical analysis of polished surfaces of FG samples and pores distribution.
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Figure 7. Thermal conductivity analysis of FG samples.
Figure 7. Thermal conductivity analysis of FG samples.
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Figure 8. SEM of porous FG sample having undecomposed PRCF.
Figure 8. SEM of porous FG sample having undecomposed PRCF.
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Figure 9. Compression puncture test of FG samples.
Figure 9. Compression puncture test of FG samples.
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Figure 10. True and bulk densities of foam glass.
Figure 10. True and bulk densities of foam glass.
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Figure 11. Open, closed, and total porosity of foam glass samples.
Figure 11. Open, closed, and total porosity of foam glass samples.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Hussain, Z.; Nouri, S.M.; Sambucci, M.; Valente, M. First Test and Characterizations on Urban Glass Waste with Waste-Derived Carbon Fiber Treated to Realize Foam Glass for Possible Construction Applications. Ceramics 2025, 8, 73. https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020073

AMA Style

Hussain Z, Nouri SM, Sambucci M, Valente M. First Test and Characterizations on Urban Glass Waste with Waste-Derived Carbon Fiber Treated to Realize Foam Glass for Possible Construction Applications. Ceramics. 2025; 8(2):73. https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020073

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hussain, Zakim, Seyed Mostafa Nouri, Matteo Sambucci, and Marco Valente. 2025. "First Test and Characterizations on Urban Glass Waste with Waste-Derived Carbon Fiber Treated to Realize Foam Glass for Possible Construction Applications" Ceramics 8, no. 2: 73. https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020073

APA Style

Hussain, Z., Nouri, S. M., Sambucci, M., & Valente, M. (2025). First Test and Characterizations on Urban Glass Waste with Waste-Derived Carbon Fiber Treated to Realize Foam Glass for Possible Construction Applications. Ceramics, 8(2), 73. https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020073

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