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Review

Damping Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms, Materials, and Dynamic Effects

by
Hasan Mostafaei
*,
Hadi Bahmani
* and
Davood Mostofinejad
Department of Civil Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology (IUT), Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9(6), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9060254
Submission received: 30 April 2025 / Revised: 17 May 2025 / Accepted: 19 May 2025 / Published: 22 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Composites Applications)
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Abstract

Enhancing the damping capacity of concrete structures is crucial for improving their resilience under dynamic loading conditions such as earthquakes, vehicular impacts, and industrial vibrations. This study presents a comprehensive review of how material properties—specifically fiber reinforcement, ductility, and toughness—affect the damping behavior of concrete. Various types of fiber reinforcements, including steel, polypropylene, and glass fibers, are analyzed in terms of their contribution to energy dissipation mechanisms such as crack bridging, fiber pullout, and frictional sliding. The role of the ductility index and toughness in augmenting the damping ratio is also discussed, demonstrating that higher ductility and toughness directly correlate with enhanced energy dissipation. Furthermore, the interrelationships between material properties and structural performance under cyclic loading are critically evaluated. The findings highlight that optimizing fiber content and improving the mechanical properties of concrete can significantly increase its damping capacity, thereby offering strategic pathways for designing safer and more durable infrastructure, especially in seismic-prone regions. This review aims to consolidate the current understanding and provide recommendations for future research focused on developing high-damping concrete composites.

1. Introduction

Concrete is a ubiquitous construction material prized for its compressive strength and durability, yet its inherent damping capacity is relatively low [1,2,3,4]. In practical terms, uncracked concrete typically exhibits an internal damping ratio on the order of only 0.1–1.0% [5,6,7,8,9]. This dimensionless damping ratio (ξ) quantifies a material’s ability to dissipate vibrational energy [10,11,12]. A higher damping ratio means a structure can absorb more energy and reduce resonant vibrations. Consequently, enhancing concrete’s damping is critical for structures exposed to cyclic or impact loads—for example, in seismic regions, vehicular bridges, and heavy-duty industrial floors where dynamic excitations can induce fatigue and damage. In structural design practice, reinforced concrete systems often assume a viscous damping ratio of roughly 5% to capture inherent energy loss [13]. However, achieving higher material damping through mix design is highly desirable to mitigate dynamic responses and improve resilience.
Because concrete’s native damping is small, understanding how to increase it is essential [14,15]. The damping ratio is a key parameter governing a structure’s dynamic response. Higher damping reduces peak accelerations and displacements under load, directly contributing to safety and serviceability [16,17,18]. For example, even modest increases in ξ can significantly curtail vibration amplitudes during earthquakes or repetitive loading. Typical undamaged concrete falls at the low end of ξ, so augmenting energy dissipation through material modifications can greatly benefit performance in earthquake-prone zones and other dynamic environments. In short, improved damping leads to safer, more ductile behavior of concrete structures under cyclic loading [19,20,21,22,23].
One promising avenue for boosting concrete damping is fiber reinforcement [24,25,26,27]. Dispersed fibers—whether steel, synthetic, or natural—enhance crack control, tensile strength, and post-cracking toughness, thereby providing additional mechanisms for energy dissipation. Steel fibers in particular have been shown to raise both ductility and damping in concrete. For instance, tests on high-strength concrete beam–column joints found that adding steel fibers nearly doubled the ductility coefficient (from ≈2.48 to ≈3.60) and increased the equivalent viscous damping ratio from 0.085 (plain concrete) to 0.14–0.20 [28]. This improvement is attributed to fibers bridging and sustaining cracks under load, which introduces frictional sliding and plastic deformation that absorb vibrational energy [28]. In a recent study of self-compacting concrete, mixes containing hooked-end steel fibers (often in combination with recycled aggregates) exhibited a measurably higher damping ratio than unreinforced mixes [29]. In general, fiber additions significantly enhance the toughness and strain-hardening behavior of the composite, resulting in more energy absorption [30,31,32]. It should be noted that not all fibers are equally effective: for example, low-volume basalt fiber (0.5%) showed no obvious change in damping ratio [33]. Nonetheless, many investigations report that steel and polypropylene fibers yield higher damping by promoting microcracking and interfacial friction under cyclic loads [28,29].
Alongside fiber reinforcement, the intrinsic ductility and toughness of the concrete matrix are key to damping performance [34,35,36]. A more ductile concrete can sustain larger hysteretic loops under cyclic loading, releasing more energy per cycle [37,38,39]. Toughness, often defined as the area under the stress–strain curve, represents total energy absorption. Concrete mixtures engineered for higher ductility (e.g., through mix design or fiber content) therefore tend to exhibit greater damping [40,41,42,43]. Studies consistently show that as ductility increases, so does the energy dissipation capacity. For example, steel-fiber-reinforced specimens with higher ductility coefficients also showed markedly stronger energy dissipation behavior compared to plain specimens [28]. Likewise, advanced composites such as engineered cementitious composites (ECCs)—known for extreme ductility and post-crack toughness—are reported to achieve unusually high damping ratios, a beneficial attribute in seismic applications. In summary, increasing concrete’s toughness and post-peak deformability (often via fiber reinforcement) provides alternative energy-dissipating mechanisms (crack bridging, sliding, and fiber pull-out) that elevate the damping ratio [44,45]. Notably, recent studies have shown that bio-based alternatives can significantly enhance the mechanical performance of materials, highlighting the potential of eco-friendly additives in structural applications [46,47].
Despite growing evidence that fiber content, ductility, and toughness strongly influence concrete damping, a comprehensive synthesis of these effects is lacking. As noted in recent research, “few studies have quantified and comprehended” the concrete damping ratio under cyclic loading and damage [5]. To address this gap, the present review systematically examines the literature from the past decade on material parameters that affect damping. In particular, we focus on how fiber reinforcement and enhancements in ductility and toughness modify the damping ratio of concrete. By collating experimental and numerical findings, this review will elucidate the mechanisms linking material properties to energy dissipation. The goal is to identify trends and open questions that inform mix design and structural detailing for high-damping concrete, ultimately improving the seismic and dynamic performance of bridges, industrial floors, and other infrastructure.

2. Impact of Fiber Types

The damping ratio of concrete is a critical parameter influencing its performance under dynamic loading conditions, such as seismic events, impact loads, and vibrations. Incorporating different types of fibers into concrete mixes enhances not only mechanical properties but also energy dissipation capacity, thereby affecting the damping ratio. To provide a comprehensive understanding, this section explores the effects of several fiber types—including steel, polypropylene, and glass fibers—and emphasizes the importance of a balanced analysis considering recent research developments [48,49,50].

2.1. Steel Fibers

Steel fibers are renowned for their high tensile strength and stiffness, making them a popular reinforcement option [51,52]. Their addition improves cracking resistance under tensile and flexural stresses [48,49,50,53], leading to a more robust dynamic response and increased energy absorption. The mechanical interlock and fiber–matrix interactions create multiple load transfer pathways, directly correlating with increased toughness and a higher damping ratio.
The primary mechanism by which steel fibers enhance damping involves their high tensile capacity resisting crack initiation and propagation, maintaining structural integrity, and allowing energy dissipation through friction and plastic deformation at the fiber–matrix interface. Moreover, the bridging action of steel fibers across cracks helps dissipate energy even after cracking [54,55]. Several studies demonstrate that increasing steel fiber content up to approximately 2% significantly elevates damping ratios, with longer fibers offering superior performance due to larger bonding surfaces and better mechanical interlock.

2.2. Polypropylene Fibers

Polypropylene fibers are valued for their cost-effectiveness, ease of application, and ability to mitigate shrinkage and cracking, which are critical for durability [51,52,56,57]. While their influence on damping ratios is less pronounced than steel fibers, they substantially improve the post-crack behavior, facilitating continued energy dissipation through fiber–matrix debonding, fiber pullout, and elongation [52,58,59,60].
Recent meta-analyses indicate that increasing polypropylene fiber content from 0.1% to 0.5% may decrease the damping ratio, with a slight, often negligible, increase observed when the content reaches 1%. This trend is captured visually in Figure 1, which shows that higher fiber contents do not substantially enhance damping and may slightly reduce it at lower percentages. Despite the limited impact on damping, their benefits in controlling shrinkage, improving toughness, and affordability make polypropylene fibers suitable for moderate dynamic applications such as residential buildings and pavements.

2.3. Glass Fibers

Glass fibers provide a unique combination of strength, flexibility, and aesthetic appeal. Their high tensile strength and stiffness enable effective load transfer across the fiber–matrix interface, maintaining structural integrity under dynamic stresses [61,62]. The ability of glass fibers to deform slightly allows energy dissipation through debonding and sliding mechanisms, contributing positively to the damping ratio.
While generally more costly than polypropylene fibers, glass fibers balance mechanical performance with durability and aesthetic characteristics, making them ideal for architectural and decorative applications requiring both resilience and visual appeal [63]. Recent studies and reviews highlight their potential in enhancing the damping capacity of concrete, especially in structures where both performance and appearance are critical.

2.4. Deepening the Comparative Framework

Given the diverse effects exhibited by these fiber types, a balanced analysis is essential for optimizing concrete reinforcement strategies. Recent meta-analyses [3,4,49] comprehensively compare the influence of fiber geometries, materials, and contents on damping performance, revealing that while steel fibers offer the most significant improvement, polypropylene and glass fibers contribute to durability and aesthetics, albeit with less impact on damping.
This balanced understanding suggests that selecting fiber types should be context-specific, considering factors such as load conditions, aesthetic requirements, cost constraints, and desired energy dissipation levels. The combined effects of hybrid fibers, for example, can further optimize damping capacities, warranting future exploration. Figure 1 presents the effects of different fiber types and contents on the concrete damping ratios.

3. Relationship Between Ductility Index and Damping Ratio

The ductility index and damping ratio are crucial parameters in evaluating the dynamic performance of concrete structures, providing insights into their resilience and stability under various loading conditions. Both measures indicate the material’s ability to deform and dissipate energy when subjected to stress, which is particularly important in dynamic, impact, or seismic loading applications.

3.1. Ductility Index

The ductility index measures a material’s capacity to undergo significant plastic deformation before fracture occurs. In concrete, ductility reflects the material’s ability to absorb and redistribute stress through large deformations, effectively enhancing its performance in structural applications. A higher ductility index signifies that concrete can endure greater displacements and strains without experiencing a loss of structural integrity.
Ductility in concrete can be achieved through several means, such as incorporating fiber reinforcement, adjusting the aggregate size distribution, or using specific chemical admixtures. Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is particularly noteworthy as fiber types—such as steel, polypropylene, or glass—impart enhanced ductility by bridging cracks that develop during loading and redistributing stresses over a larger area. As a result, the concrete can deform more significantly before structural failure, making it ideal for applications where flexibility and energy absorption are critical, such as in seismic-resistant structures or pavements subjected to heavy traffic loads [64,65,66,67,68].

3.2. The Effects of Damping Ratio on Energy Dissipation

The damping ratio quantifies a material’s energy dissipation ability during cyclic or dynamic loading. A higher damping ratio indicates that a material can effectively reduce vibrations and dissipate energy, enhancing the structure’s overall stability and serviceability. The damping ratio is influenced by several factors, including the microstructure of the concrete, the type of constituent materials used, and the presence of reinforcement. For example, materials with higher porosity or those incorporating supplementary cementitious materials often exhibit improved damping characteristics [63,64,65,66].
Energy dissipation mechanisms in concrete include viscoelastic deformation, friction at the aggregate–cement paste interfaces, and the formation of micro-cracks that consume energy rather than transmit it undampened through the structure. Moreover, reinforcing elements such as fibers contribute significantly to these mechanisms by improving crack resistance and promoting additional energy-dissipating interactions such as pull-out and debonding, further enhancing the composite material’s damping capacity [67,68].

3.3. Interrelationship

The interrelationship between the ductility index and damping ratio is inherently linked to the material’s energy absorption and dissipation properties. As the ductility index increases, it often corresponds to a higher damping ratio. This correlation arises because materials that can undergo large plastic deformations tend to exhibit improved energy dissipation capabilities. The plastic deformation processes allow for the redistribution of stresses, thus contributing to enhanced energy absorption during dynamic events.
In fiber-reinforced concrete, for instance, the inclusion of fibers not only enhances the material’s ductility, enabling it to withstand greater overloads and deformations, but also improves the damping characteristics due to the fibers’ ability to redistribute loads and dissipate energy through multiple mechanisms. These fibers act as effective crack-bridging agents that minimize crack propagation and significantly improve the material’s energy-dissipating behavior under dynamic loading conditions.
The synergy between ductility and damping can also be seen in high-performance concrete designs that utilize advanced materials and optimized mix proportions. These engineered systems often show marked improvements in both ductility and damping ratios, enabling structures to perform effectively in seismic-prone areas where absorbing seismic energy and reducing the impact of vibrations are critically important.
In Milasinovic’s research, the effects of various physical parameters, such as material properties, geometric dimensions, and loading conditions, on the damping ratio were quantitatively estimated using linear and nonlinear viscoelastic analysis. Two types of damping were considered in this study: viscous damping, which is defined as being proportional to stiffness and/or mass in linear analysis, and hysteresis damping, which is caused by inelastic deformations of the damper material in nonlinear analysis.
Due to the viscoelastic properties of the damper material and the frequency dependence of the viscous damping ratio (n), it is helpful to separately consider conditions when n is positive and when it is negative. A negative damping ratio indicates a complementary solution where the response is not lost but oscillates with increasing amplitude. In nonlinear analysis, the force–displacement relationship of the damper is nonlinear, making it challenging to accurately predict the actual damping and stiffness coefficients, even if the force–displacement characteristic is perfectly elastoplastic.
The Rayleigh Dissipation Approach, which accounts for the release rate of viscoelastic–plastic energy in dissipation devices, can linearize nonlinear behaviors. This allows damping coefficients, equivalent stiffness, and effective period for the damper to be obtained, which are important parameters for the design and analysis of structural systems.
In their research, Milasinovic and colleagues demonstrated that an increase in the ductility index correlates with a higher damping ratio, suggesting that more ductile concrete materials possess enhanced energy dissipation capabilities [61]. The relationship between the damping index and the concrete ductility is presented in Figure 2.

3.4. Summary and Key Insights on the Ductility Index and Damping Ratio

The ductility index and damping ratio are vital indicators of a concrete structure’s dynamic performance, reflecting its ability to deform and dissipate energy under various loading conditions. A higher ductility index signifies greater capacity for plastic deformation before fracture, enhancing structural resilience, particularly in applications subject to dynamic, impact, or seismic loads. Strategies to improve ductility include fiber reinforcement, optimized aggregate sizes, and specialized chemical admixtures, with FRC proving particularly effective in bridging cracks and enhancing load redistribution.
Conversely, the damping ratio quantifies a material’s energy dissipation capacity during dynamic loading. Materials with a higher damping ratio can effectively reduce vibrations, improving overall stability. Various factors influence this property, including concrete microstructure, constituent materials, and reinforcement types. Energy dissipation mechanisms such as viscoelastic deformation, friction, and micro-crack formation are crucial to enhancing damping capacity, with reinforced fibers contributing to improved energy dissipation through mechanisms like pull-out and debonding.
The ductility index and the damping ratio are intrinsically linked; as ductility increases, so does the damping ratio. Materials capable of significant plastic deformation typically exhibit superior energy dissipation. In FRCs, fibers promote greater ductility and bolster damping characteristics, allowing for effective load redistribution and enhanced energy absorption during dynamic events.
This synergy is especially noticeable in high-performance concrete designs that leverage advanced materials and optimized mixes, resulting in marked improvements in both ductility and damping ratios. Such improvements are critical for structural effectiveness in seismic-prone areas, where absorbing seismic energy and mitigating vibrations is essential.
Research, including Milasinovic’s study, underscores the quantifiable relationship between these parameters. Studies illustrate that as the ductility index increases, the damping ratio also rises, indicating that more ductile concrete formulations can dissipate energy more efficiently. Understanding this relationship can guide engineers in designing more resilient concrete structures tailored for environments prone to dynamic loading, ensuring safety and longevity.

4. Toughness and Damping Ratio in Concrete

Toughness and damping ratio are two critical properties that significantly influence the performance and durability of concrete structures, particularly when subjected to dynamic loading conditions like earthquakes, vehicular impacts, or other forms of mechanical stress. A comprehensive understanding of the relationship between these properties is essential for designing concrete materials that meet the rigorous demands of modern engineering applications.

4.1. Toughness

Toughness in concrete is defined as its ability to absorb energy and undergo significant deformation before fracturing. It is an essential indicator of a material’s resilience, reflecting its capacity to withstand unexpected loads without catastrophic failure. Concrete is inherently brittle; however, its toughness can be substantially enhanced by incorporating fiber reinforcements, such as steel, glass, natural, or synthetic fibers [69].
The mechanism behind toughness enhancement involves the fibers’ ability to bridge cracks that develop within the concrete matrix during loading. This bridging action redistributes stress and allows the concrete to deform plastically, increasing its energy absorption capability. As a result, FRC systems demonstrate significantly improved toughness compared to conventional concrete. The toughness of concrete can be quantified using metrics such as the area under the stress–strain curve in a tensile test or using standardized tests like ASTM C1018 [69] (Equations (1)–(4)) for fiber-reinforced materials [70].
The relationship between the ductility index and toughness indices is demonstrated in Equations (5)–(9). According to these mathematical relationships, the ductility and toughness indices exhibit a direct, positive correlation. In other words, as the ductility index increases, the toughness index increases, and vice versa. This implies that materials with higher ductility tend to have greater toughness, and materials with lower ductility tend to have reduced toughness. Understanding this direct relationship between ductility and toughness is crucial for material selection and design, as it allows engineers to predict and optimize the mechanical properties of various materials based on their ductility characteristics.
Moreover, the type, volume, and orientation of the fibers used play a pivotal role in the overall toughness of the concrete. Different fibers impart varying degrees of toughness based on their mechanical properties, aspect ratios, and bonding characteristics with the cement matrix. This variability enables engineers to tailor concrete mixes to specific applications, improving performance in scenarios where high energy absorption is critical, such as in pavement systems, protective structures, and bridges.
I 5 = T 3 δ / T δ L O P ,
I 10 = T 5.5 δ / T δ L O P ,
I 20 = T 10.5 δ / T δ L O P ,
I 30 = T 15.5 δ / T δ L O P ,
D u c t i l i t y   I n d e x = δ M O R / δ L O P ,
I 5 = 2 T 3 δ   D u c t i l i t y   i n d e x / P L O P δ M O R ,
I 10 = 2 T 5.5 δ   D u c t i l i t y   i n d e x / P L O P δ M O R ,
I 20 = 2 T 10.5 δ   D u c t i l i t y   i n d e x / P L O P δ M O R ,
I 30 = 2 T 15.5 δ   D u c t i l i t y   i n d e x / P L O P δ M O R ,
In this analysis, the flexural toughness of the material was determined based on mid-span deflections recorded at various points: δ LOP, δ 3LOP, δ 5.5LOP, δ 10.5LOP, and δ 15.5LOP. Notably, the flexural toughness associated with the mid-span deflection at δ LOP corresponds to the first crack flexural toughness, marking the point at which the material first exhibits visible cracking under load.
For the other mid-span deflections, specific flexural toughness values were assigned designations: T3 δ for δ 3LOP, T5.5 δ for δ 5.5LOP, T10.5 δ for δ 10.5LOP, and T15.5 δ for δ 15.5LOP. These designations reflect the flexural toughness measured at each respective mid-span deflection point.
The parameters T3 δ , T5.5 δ , T10.5 δ , and T15.5 δ were obtained by calculating the area under the load versus the mid-span deflection curve leading up to each deflection value. This area quantifies the energy absorbed by the material before reaching the specified deflection points, providing a comprehensive understanding of the material’s performance and resilience under flexural loading. This method of analysis enables a clearer interpretation of the structural integrity and toughness of the material, further informing engineering decisions in design applications.

4.2. Damping Ratio

The damping ratio is a dimensionless measure that quantifies a material’s ability to dissipate energy during cyclic or dynamic loading conditions. In concrete, a higher damping ratio implies an increased capacity for energy dissipation, which reduces the amplitude of vibrations and enhances overall structural stability (Figure 3). Several factors influence the damping ratio of concrete, including its microstructural composition, type and quantity of reinforcement (such as fibers), and the incorporation of supplementary materials.
Damping in concrete can be primarily attributed to energy loss mechanisms such as viscoelastic deformation, friction at aggregate–cement paste interfaces, and micro-crack formation under repeated loading. The refined microstructure of advanced concrete types, like ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) or ECC, can generate higher damping ratios through reduced porosity and improved bonding between particles, leading to more effective energy dissipation pathways.
Additionally, the presence of fibers enhances the toughness and contributes to the material’s damping characteristics. Specific fibers can induce unique energy-dissipating behaviors through debonding, pull-out, and friction, further elevating the damping ratio. Thus, the design and selection of fibers are critical in optimizing the damping performance of concrete structures.

4.3. Interrelationship Between Toughness and Damping Ratio

The interrelationship between toughness and the damping ratio in concrete is vital for understanding how these properties contribute to material performance under dynamic loads. Tougher concrete typically demonstrates a higher damping ratio. This correlation arises because the energy absorption mechanisms inherent in tough materials, such as crack bridging and fiber pull-out, effectively aid in energy dissipation during cyclic loading.
For instance, fibers in fiber-reinforced concrete impede crack growth and serve as energy-dissipating entities during dynamic loading, thereby contributing to toughness and a higher damping ratio. This linked behavior is particularly important in applications requiring materials to withstand repeated impacts or vibrations, such as in seismic-resilient structures and infrastructures subject to traffic-induced vibrations [69,70].
Moreover, the damping ratio often increases in high-performance concrete mixtures, where enhanced toughness is achieved through the strategic employment of advanced materials and design considerations. The synergetic effects of fiber reinforcement and optimized microstructural features lead to composite materials that excel in energy absorption and dissipation, making them well-suited for applications in challenging environments.
In practical terms, engineers increasingly emphasize the importance of achieving high toughness and damping ratios in concrete formulations. This approach ensures the resulting structures can effectively endure dynamic loads while minimizing the risk of structural failure. Thus, optimizing mixing design, fiber selection, and overall material properties remains a critical area of research and development in concrete technology.
Based on the mathematical equations, specifically Equations (1)–(9), which adhere to the ASTM C1018 [69] standard definition of the toughness index, researchers have developed a relationship between the toughness index and the ductility index of concrete materials. From this established relationship, it can be concluded that the ductility index is directly proportional to the toughness index. In other words, as the toughness index of a concrete sample increases, the ductility index also increases in a corresponding manner [69,70].
Previous research has explicitly established the direct relationship between the damping index and the ductility index. Additionally, the connection between the ductility index and the toughness index has been refined in Equations (1)–(9) of the manuscript. Given these equations, along with the established relationship between the damping index and the ductility index, it becomes possible to derive the correlation between the damping index and the toughness index.
In summary, the research has demonstrated that by adhering to the ASTM C1018 [69] standard and the equations developed by the researchers, it can be deduced that an increase in the toughness index of concrete samples directly translates to an increase in the ductility index, which in turn leads to an increased damping ratio. This relationship highlights the importance of toughness and ductility in concrete materials, as they directly influence the energy dissipation capabilities and the overall damping behavior.

4.4. Comprehensive Section Summaries and Key Insights

As engineers and material scientists continue to explore innovative methods to enhance these properties through advanced constituents and technologies, the potential applications for tougher, more resilient, and energy-dissipating concrete systems are expanding. Understanding the relationship between toughness and damping will allow for more informed and effective design choices, contributing to the construction of safer, more durable infrastructure capable of withstanding the challenges posed by modern environmental and loading conditions.

5. Dynamic Loading Effects

The dynamic behavior of concrete, particularly its damping characteristics, is significantly influenced by several interrelated factors [34,71,72]. The inclusion of fibers or rubber particles in the concrete matrix tends to increase hysteretic energy dissipation and enhance damage tolerance, thereby elevating the effective damping capacity under large cyclic strains [73,74,75]. These additions promote frictional interactions at the microstructural level, such as fiber pull-out and interfacial sliding, which absorb vibrational energy during repeated loading. Additionally, the strain rate plays a pivotal role in damping performance. Higher loading rates generally lead to an increase in apparent stiffness and can intensify microcracking, which in turn alters the material’s ability to dissipate energy—often increasing it, although more experimental data is needed to establish definitive trends. The damage state of the concrete is another crucial factor: as microcracks propagate due to mechanisms like fatigue loading or freeze–thaw cycles, frictional (Coulomb-type) and sliding dissipative processes become more pronounced, leading to a corresponding rise in the damping ratio [76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84]. In general, the baseline damping ratio for undamaged concrete is relatively low—typically ranging from 0.1% to 2%—but this value can increase substantially, reaching several percent as internal damage accumulates. This dynamic evolution of damping behavior underscores the importance of considering both material composition and service history in the design and analysis of vibration-sensitive concrete structures.
While concrete damping is inherently rate- and damage-dependent, under cyclic or impact loading, additional energy dissipation mechanisms emerge [85]. High strain-rate tests (Split-Hopkinson Pressure Bar) on fiber concrete show that fiber content significantly increases the material’s energy absorption before failure, although strength and stiffness also rise [86,87]. For example, Dong et al. [88] observed that adding rubber particles and steel fibers to concrete produced much larger hysteretic stress–strain loops under cyclic compression; the loop area (dissipated energy) grew with fiber/rubber content, indicating enhanced damping. Rubber additives in particular introduced pronounced viscous loops (“rubber damping”) and synergized with steel fibers to raise residual stress and toughness.
Cyclic fatigue and damage further modulate damping. Gidrão et al. [5] performed acoustic/vibration tests on normal- and high-strength concrete subjected to controlled cyclic loading. They found that undamaged normal concrete had ξ ≈ 0.5%, rising to ≈2.5% at severe damage (damage index 0.8), while high-strength concrete started lower (ξ ≈ 0.2%) and peaked ≈0.9% at moderate damage [5]. This increase is attributed to crack formation: as microcracks open and slide, Coulomb friction contributes more loss. In other words, progressive damage under cyclic loads converts elastic energy into heat via frictional slip, raising the effective damping [5]. By contrast, modal testing on undamaged basalt-fiber concrete beams showed negligible change in ξ with fiber content [33], implying that fibers mainly improve stiffness and strength without dramatically altering intrinsic damping in the elastic regime.

6. Standardization and Testing Protocols for Damping Ratio Evaluation

There are numerous approaches available for identifying the modal parameters of structural samples, each with its own methodology, advantages, and limitations [89,90,91,92]. To ensure consistency and comparability across studies, a standardized test method for evaluating the damping ratio of concrete is essential. Based on a comprehensive review of existing research, the following test setup and procedure are recommended, aligning with established practices such as those outlined in relevant seismic testing protocols.

6.1. Test Setup

6.1.1. Specimen Preparation

Prepare concrete beams or cylinders according to standard dimensions (e.g., 150 mm diameter, 300 mm length for cylinders; 100 mm × 100mm × 300 mm for beams), ensuring uniform surface finish and curing conditions.

6.1.2. Support and Boundary Conditions

The specimen is mounted simply supported at both ends to facilitate free vibration. Supports should minimize damping artifacts and avoid energy dissipation unrelated to material damping.

6.1.3. Excitation Method

Use an impact hammer or an electromagnetic shaker to introduce an initial excitation at a specified location (e.g., mid-span for beams), ensuring repeatability.

6.1.4. Measurement Instruments

  • Sensors: Accelerometers or displacement sensors placed at key points to capture vibrational response accurately.
  • Data Acquisition: High-speed data acquisition system synchronized with the excitation device.

6.2. Testing Procedure

6.2.1. Excitation

Deliver a controlled impact or harmonic input to induce free vibrations without overexciting the specimen.

6.2.2. Data Recording

Record the decay of the vibrational response over time until the amplitude diminishes to a defined threshold.

6.2.3. Data Analysis

  • Extract the free vibration response, typically the logarithmic decrement method or FFT-based modal analysis.
  • Calculate the damping ratio (ζ) using the logarithmic decrement.

6.3. Recommendations for Standardization

  • Maintain consistent specimen geometry and boundary conditions.
  • Use precise, calibrated sensors for response measurement.
  • Repeat tests to assess variability and ensure repeatability.
  • Document environmental conditions (temperature and humidity) as they may influence damping.

6.4. Contextualizing Damping in Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: Insights from Recent Meta-Analyses and Reviews

Understanding the damping characteristics of fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) has been a subject of extensive research in recent years, resulting in comprehensive meta-analyses and review studies that synthesize experimental findings and provide overarching insights. These syntheses are essential for contextualizing current work within the broader scientific landscape and for identifying trends and gaps.
Recent review papers, such as [48,49,50,93,94], have systematically evaluated a wide range of experimental data to assess the influence of various fiber types (e.g., steel, polypropylene, and glass) and volume fractions on the damping ratio of FRC. These studies report that the addition of fibers generally enhances damping capacity, particularly in low-to-moderate fiber volume fractions, by introducing micro-damping mechanisms related to fiber–matrix interactions and crack-bridging phenomena.
Similarly, review papers like [48,49,50,93,94] have summarized the effects of fiber orientation, length, and surface properties on vibrational energy dissipation. These reviews highlight that the damping enhancements are highly dependent on fiber morphology and distribution, with certain fiber configurations resulting in more pronounced energy absorption characteristics.
Furthermore, these meta-analyses often emphasize the importance of standardized testing methods for damping measurement, as variations in experimental protocols can significantly influence reported damping ratios. This underscores the necessity of adopting consistent testing and analytical procedures to enable more meaningful comparisons across studies.
By integrating findings from these comprehensive reviews, our current analysis aims to build upon established knowledge, highlighting how the specific fiber types and content investigated compare with existing trends and identifying avenues for further research, such as the effects of hybrid fibers or the influence of environmental conditions on damping behavior.

7. Main Challenges and Limitations

While fiber reinforcement and enhanced material properties have shown promise in improving the damping capacity of concrete structures, several challenges and limitations must be addressed to optimize their effectiveness.
  • Material Compatibility and Durability: The integration of fiber reinforcements such as steel, polypropylene, and glass fibers pose compatibility issues with conventional concrete mixtures. Differences in thermal expansion coefficients and bonding characteristics may lead to durability concerns, affecting the long-term performance of the composite material under cyclic loading.
  • Optimal Fiber Content and Distribution: Determining the ideal fiber type, content, and distribution for maximizing damping capacity remains a challenge. Excessive fiber content can lead to workability issues and segregation within the concrete matrix, while insufficient fiber reinforcement may result in suboptimal energy dissipation.
  • Effectiveness Under Varying Dynamic Loading Conditions: The damping efficiency of fiber-reinforced concrete depends on the nature and intensity of dynamic loading. While certain fiber compositions may enhance energy dissipation under seismic events, their performance under repeated industrial vibrations or vehicular impacts requires further investigation to establish reliable design guidelines.
  • Standardization and Testing Protocols: The absence of universally accepted testing methods for evaluating damping capacity creates difficulties in comparing results across different studies. Variability in experimental setups, loading frequencies, and measurement techniques can lead to inconsistent conclusions regarding the effectiveness of fiber reinforcement strategies.
  • Cost and Practical Implementation: The inclusion of specialized fibers and modifications to conventional concrete formulations may increase production costs and complicate large-scale applications. Economic feasibility, along with practical considerations such as mixing, curing, and long-term maintenance, must be carefully assessed to ensure widespread adoption.
  • Environmental and Sustainability Concerns: The production and disposal of synthetic fibers, particularly polymers, raise environmental concerns. Research into sustainable alternatives, such as natural fiber reinforcements or recycled materials, is essential to align damping enhancement strategies with sustainable construction practices.
Addressing these challenges requires continued interdisciplinary research and advancements in material science, experimental techniques, and structural engineering practices. Future studies should focus on optimizing fiber–matrix interactions, refining analytical models, and developing standardized performance evaluation methods to enhance the reliability and applicability of high-damping concrete composites.

8. Conclusions and Future Directions

This review underscores the fundamental role of fiber reinforcement, ductility, and toughness in enhancing the damping capacity of concrete structures, particularly in environments subject to dynamic loading such as earthquakes, vehicular impacts, and industrial vibrations. The incorporation of fibers into concrete improves energy dissipation mechanisms—including crack bridging, fiber pullout, and frictional sliding—ultimately leading to structures that exhibit greater resilience and reduced susceptibility to damage. By optimizing fiber composition and distribution within the concrete matrix, engineers can develop materials that provide superior damping characteristics, reinforcing the safety and durability of infrastructure in seismic-prone regions.
Despite these advancements, several challenges must be addressed to fully integrate fiber-reinforced concrete as a standard material for high-damping applications. Compatibility between fiber types and traditional concrete mixtures remains a concern, as improper integration can result in durability issues and weakened mechanical performance over time. Additionally, the lack of standardized testing methodologies for evaluating damping capacity introduces inconsistencies across studies, making it difficult to develop universally accepted design guidelines. Economic feasibility is another critical factor, as specialized fibers and processing techniques may increase material costs and limit widespread adoption.
Future research directions should prioritize refining fiber–matrix interactions to maximize energy dissipation while maintaining overall structural integrity. Investigating hybrid fiber compositions, such as blends of steel and polymer fibers, or bio-based alternatives, could offer innovative solutions that balance performance and sustainability. Furthermore, advancements in analytical modeling and computational simulations will enable engineers to predict and optimize the damping behavior of fiber-reinforced concrete under various dynamic loading conditions. The development of standardized testing protocols for damping evaluation will also be crucial in establishing reliable performance benchmarks and ensuring consistency across different material formulations.
Interdisciplinary collaboration between material scientists, structural engineers, and industry practitioners will be essential in driving the next generation of high-damping concrete composites. By addressing existing challenges and expanding research efforts, the construction industry can advance toward more resilient and sustainable infrastructure capable of mitigating dynamic stresses. Ultimately, continuous innovation in fiber-reinforced concrete design will pave the way for safer and more durable built environments, contributing to long-term structural integrity and enhanced public safety in regions vulnerable to dynamic loads.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.M. and H.B.; methodology, H.M. and H.B.; writing—original draft preparation, H.B.; writing—review and editing, D.M.; visualization, H.M. and H.B.; supervision, D.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable. No new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
ECCEngineered cementitious composites
FRCFiber-reinforced concrete
UHPCUltra-high-performance concrete

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Figure 1. The effects of different fiber types and contents on the concrete damping ratios.
Figure 1. The effects of different fiber types and contents on the concrete damping ratios.
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Figure 2. The relationship between the damping index and the concrete ductility.
Figure 2. The relationship between the damping index and the concrete ductility.
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Figure 3. The relationship between the damping index and the concrete toughness index.
Figure 3. The relationship between the damping index and the concrete toughness index.
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Mostafaei, H.; Bahmani, H.; Mostofinejad, D. Damping Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms, Materials, and Dynamic Effects. J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9, 254. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9060254

AMA Style

Mostafaei H, Bahmani H, Mostofinejad D. Damping Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms, Materials, and Dynamic Effects. Journal of Composites Science. 2025; 9(6):254. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9060254

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mostafaei, Hasan, Hadi Bahmani, and Davood Mostofinejad. 2025. "Damping Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms, Materials, and Dynamic Effects" Journal of Composites Science 9, no. 6: 254. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9060254

APA Style

Mostafaei, H., Bahmani, H., & Mostofinejad, D. (2025). Damping Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms, Materials, and Dynamic Effects. Journal of Composites Science, 9(6), 254. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9060254

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