Influence of Technological and Socioeconomic Factors on Affordable and Sustainable Housing Development

Abstract

An effective housing policy must ensure affordability for individuals across all income levels by integrating advanced technological innovations with comprehensive socioeconomic strategies. Affordable housing fosters social inclusion, whereas sustainability supports long-term environmental protection and economic stability. The success and long-term sustainability of affordable housing initiatives are heavily influenced by current socioeconomic conditions, emphasizing the need for context-specific, inclusive, and sustainable housing solutions. Benchmarks are crucial in affordable housing to determine if it is climate-positive, aligning with the goals of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 11.1, which seeks to provide affordable and sustainable housing for everyone by 2030. This study uses the Scopus database to perform a scientometric analysis of 595 publications (2015–2024) on sustainability and affordability in housing. Using R-Studio 2025.05.1 + 513.pro3 and VOSviewer 1.6.20, it examines bibliographic trends, research gaps, and collaboration patterns across countries and journals. This study highlights performance thresholds related to economic, environmental, energy, territorial, and climatic factors. However, cost and ecological objectives can cause conflict with each other practically, and hence a balanced approach including green practices, efficient materials, and subsidies is crucial. There is a need for policymakers to address market gaps to prevent socially exclusive or environmentally harmful outcomes, maintain long-term urban resilience, and ensure sustained urban resilience and equitable access to affordable, sustainable housing by 2030. Integrating sustainable materials, circular and climate-resilient design, smart technologies, inclusive governance, and evidence-based policies is crucial for advancing affordable, equitable, and resilient housing. This approach guides future research and policy toward long-term social, economic, and environmental benefits. The findings and recommendations promote sustainable, affordable housing, emphasizing the need for further research on climate-resilient, energy-efficient, and cost-effective building solutions.

1. Introduction

Sustainability and affordability are distinct yet interconnected concepts in the housing sector. Affordable housing (AH) refers to homes that are financially accessible to individuals or families with moderate to low incomes, usually costing no more than 30% of a household’s gross income [1]. According to UN-Habitat, AH must be adequate in quality and cost without compromising occupants’ ability to meet other essential needs, ensuring both inclusivity and the protection of basic human rights. Sustainable housing, on the other hand, emphasizes environmentally responsible design, construction, and operation to minimize ecological impact and ensure long-term viability.

Scientometric analysis, the quantitative study of scientific literature, offers valuable insights into trends and influential factors in sustainable and AH research. It helps identify emerging topics, assess the impact of research, and guide priorities for policymakers and scholars [2]. Understanding the research dynamics supports evidence-based decision-making and helps direct resources toward critical gaps. Efforts in sustainable and affordable housing closely align with several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), notably SDG 3 (Good health and well-being), SDG 6 (Clean water and sanitation), SDG 7 (Affordable and clean energy), SDG 11 (Sustainable cities and communities), and SDG 13 (Climate action). AH refers to the financial accessibility and affordability of housing options for individuals or families with different income levels. It focuses on providing AH for lower to middle-income households [3,4].

Affordability remains a significant concern in developing nations, and efforts can be made to fulfill the AH goals of their citizens. Policymakers at global, national, regional, community, and government levels are strategizing various policies to ensure quantity, quality, availability, and AH for citizens [5,6]. A significant challenge for developing countries is ensuring equal social and AH for low-income populations. Residential energy consumption accounts for approximately 30% of total energy use. High energy costs make housing unaffordable for many families. Such high energy expenses significantly contribute to the overall financial burden, making housing unaffordable for most families, and necessitate local government programs to help mitigate these costs [7,8]. To maximize energy, environmental, and economic benefits for the local community/region, it is crucial to combine energy-efficient technologies and green building techniques [9,10,11]. The affordability of more energy-efficient appliances is a key concern for low-income groups. Low-income households can make homes more affordable by improving energy efficiency and reducing overall costs.

Achieving affordable, sustainable housing faces challenges because it requires balancing both sustainability and affordability [12]. Key factors include energy efficiency, tenure security, indoor comfort, income-relative affordability, and water efficiency. To promote global sustainability, efforts should focus on providing sustainable, climate-positive, and energy-efficient AH to low-income populations [13,14,15]. Sustainable housing and AH can offer maximum benefits, such as meeting current needs while ensuring future requirements through sustainable practices [16,17,18]. The construction sector must adopt innovative technologies and sustainable strategies to overcome inefficiencies associated with traditional methods in delivering sustainability and AH [19,20]. Addressing the informal housing crisis requires comprehensive strategies to improve the living conditions of residents in slums and squatter settlements [21]. Digital technologies and regulatory reforms enable new practices and methods to address the significant housing shortage [22]. Nguyen and Payton Scally [23] examined the effects of AH on nearby property prices. The design and development of AH depend on its density and compatibility with surrounding neighborhoods. McCabe et al. [24] discussed the implementation of energy technologies in housing to improve energy efficiency. Darko and Chan [25] highlighted environmental sustainability in housing.

The literature addressed sustainability in various aspects of housing [26,27,28]. Although the reviews contribute significantly to AH and other SDGs, they were based on a small sample size of articles and require further research and practical improvements in off-site construction and energy efficiency [29,30,31]. Energy efficiency and rapid construction using innovative materials are vital for social housing [32,33]. Poverty and financial subsidies have a significant impact on the development of sustainable, affordable, and energy-efficient housing in AH [34,35,36]. Energy subsidies for low-income groups and the adoption of renewable energy are potential strategies to enhance affordability and sustainability in social housing [37,38]. The housing system and welfare state structure vary across countries, shaping the social class trajectory of individuals based on their origins [39]. A new national housing policy signals policymakers’ increasing support for alternative low-income housing approaches promoted by civil society, emphasizing collective self-help and financial inclusion [40]. The development of new materials and construction policies aimed at mitigating carbon emissions can enhance sustainability in AH [41,42,43,44]. Integrating solar energy projects into buildings is a promising approach toward energy efficiency [45,46]. Green building initiatives and low-cost construction technologies undoubtedly improve sustainability and affordability in the housing sector [47,48,49]. The scientometric analysis of AH provides insights into the current state of the literature, although further research is necessary to thoroughly understand research trends and identify gaps [50,51].

Canöz and Kalkavan [52] analyzed Istanbul’s housing market using a nonlinear model. Falling mortgage rates, refugee influx, and foreign investment boosted demand, while construction costs were the primary price drivers. Macroeconomic policies, like increasing the money supply, also raised prices. The study advocates reforms to improve housing affordability. Alhajri [53] found that income and home value were the strongest predictors of housing affordability in Saudi Arabia. Alhajri [54] examined Saudi Arabia’s “enabling” housing strategy under Vision 2030. The study identified persistent challenges: high land costs, financing gaps, and investor dominance. While government programs support vulnerable groups, deeper funding and regulatory reforms are necessary to make homeownership truly inclusive and sustainable. Bostanara et al. [55] used a dynamic discrete choice model to analyze residential relocation in Sydney. The study highlighted affordability as the main factor and demonstrated how employment and housing choices interact. The model provided deeper insights than static approaches, informing integrated land-use and housing policy.

Bereitschaft [56] found that socially vulnerable residents in U.S. cities often reside in areas with higher crime rates, poor schools, and inadequate transit. The study emphasizes that walkability must be combined with affordability and quality services for accurate spatial equity. Li et al. [57] assessed access to 14 amenities in Xi’an using advanced models, revealing significant gaps, especially for children and low-income groups. The study highlights the importance of spatial equity in urban planning and service distribution. Montero et al. [58] found transport inequality in Barcelona, with central areas enjoying better mobility and outer suburbs facing service gaps and reliance on cars. Travel data from 2018 to 2021 revealed that these inequities limit access to services, prompting a call for mobility and land-use reforms focused on equity to bridge suburban-urban disparities. Tammaru et al. [59] proposed an equitable sustainable mobility model centered on five pillars, including mixed-income housing and active transport. They argued that sustainable cities must address segregation and accessibility inequalities. Their framework aims to integrate equity into 15 min city strategies and broader urban mobility planning. The 15 min city concept reframes housing not merely as a means of shelter, but as an integral part of vibrant, connected neighborhoods where affordable living is embedded within accessible and inclusive urban environments. Poorthuis and Zook [60] found that 15 min city principles often overlook non-urban areas. Using 16 years of Dutch travel data, they show that replacing car travel with transit in rural regions significantly increases commute times. Strict 15 min frameworks may exacerbate inequities for suburban and rural residents who rely on driving. Reducing dependence on motorized transport through this model has the potential to lower carbon emissions by up to 25%, offering direct benefits to residents of AH who often face significant transportation-related financial strain.

Vardopoulos et al. [61] mapped urban growth in Pafos, Cyprus, showing a 55% increase in settlements from 1993 to 2021. Growth has slowed recently due to economic crises. At the same time, the fragmentation of sprawl and the densification of urban cores have highlighted the need for compact city planning to improve land-use efficiency and sustainability. Ebraheem et al. [62] analyzed post-2003 urban sprawl in Baghdad, finding that unregulated settlements in Al-Dora strained infrastructure and public services. Surveys revealed severe deficiencies in utilities and transport, with weak governance and poor coordination identified as key barriers. The authors recommended planning reforms and GIS-based monitoring to support sustainable urban management.

Silva et al. [63] reviewed over 100 studies on sustainable, affordable housing, proposing a framework that integrates technical, social, and governance factors. Their review found that fragmented approaches are common, emphasizing the need for holistic, equity-focused research and policies to improve housing quality and sustainability. Cai et al. [64] developed a multi-criteria tool using 14 transit-oriented development indicators to redevelop Washington’s park-and-ride sites. The tool evaluated scenarios focused on affordable, market-rate, and mixed-use housing, aiding in the alignment of land use, housing equity, and public transit for data-driven, sustainable redevelopment. Larsen et al. [65] studied circular economy practices in Denmark’s subsidized housing, finding that architects often overlook the social value creation aspect. They introduced a toolset that incorporates social value into circular design, promoting more inclusive and sustainable built environments.

Domènech-Rodríguez et al. [66] studied six collaborative housing projects in Barcelona, finding that co-design and reuse strategies effectively addressed housing shortages amid the pressures of tourism. Resident empowerment and participatory design proved essential in creating resilient, AH in underserved neighborhoods. Dabush et al. [67] employed game theory to model the benefits of rooftop solar energy in Israel’s affordable housing. Sharing 10% of photovoltaic income with tenants can decrease energy costs by 4.6%, highlighting the Housing Ministry as crucial for advancing solar equity and climate adaptation.

Liaw et al. [68] assessed thermal comfort in Brazil’s Minha Casa Minha Vida housing, demonstrating that better ventilation and materials significantly improved indoor temperatures and energy efficiency. Bradley [69] identified similar issues in Johannesburg, where low-cost homes are often heated to temperatures exceeding outdoor temperatures, creating risks as regional temperatures are projected to rise by up to 3 °C. Improving energy efficiency in homes is vital for achieving climate and economic goals, as they account for 30% of global energy use and 26% of emissions. Enhanced insulation can lower indoor temperatures by up to 3 °C, reducing heat stress for vulnerable groups and advancing climate justice for marginalized communities. Cuerdo-Vilches and Navas-Martín [70] examined five women-led households in Madrid, linking poor thermal conditions and limited financial resources to chronic illnesses and advocating for gender- and health-sensitive housing policies. Yeganeh et al. [71] found that EarthCraft-certified housing in Richmond increased both population and property values.

Studies involving low-income housing units were considered the constant variable, concentrating on energy efficiency variation within the AH typology [72,73,74,75]. The literature on current construction techniques and methodologies was related to construction technology, materials, and architectural design used in AH [76,77,78,79,80]. The intersection of housing policy, technology, and sustainability within the context of AH initiatives is essential for providing practical solutions [81,82,83]. Enhancing housing sustainability and affordability involves redefining key terms, addressing affordability issues for specific demographics, improving thermal comfort in AH, and exploring alternative high-rise designs in tropical regions, all aimed at creating more accessible and sustainable housing solutions [84,85,86,87].

Despite substantial progress in AH research, the interaction between technological advancements and socioeconomic factors in shaping affordable and sustainable housing solutions remains insufficiently explored. While existing studies offer valuable insights into housing affordability, there are still gaps in understanding how technological innovations and socioeconomic factors interact to influence the development and accessibility of sustainable, affordable housing. Additionally, knowledge about emerging trends and future directions in AH research, especially from a global perspective, remains fragmented and lacks comprehensive data-driven insights. This study aims to address these gaps by analyzing the latest scientometric data (2015–2024) to identify key areas that need further investigation.

The primary objective of this research is to provide a comprehensive analysis and framework for understanding how technological and socioeconomic factors influence affordable and sustainable housing. Using scientometric analysis of 206 Scopus-indexed AH research articles published from 2015 to 2024, the study aims to:

• To systematically analyze global research trends, collaboration patterns, and thematic developments in affordable and sustainable housing, identifying key knowledge gaps and guiding future policy and research directions.
• To promote sustainable, resilient, and inclusive housing by encouraging eco-friendly materials, affordable renewable systems, modular construction, material reuse, and nature-based energy-efficient designs, while incorporating climate adaptation, affordability, and social equity into policies, financing, and governance frameworks.
• To support coordinated efforts among architects, planners, economists, and social scientists, and establish standardized indicators and monitoring frameworks that ensure evidence-based, accountable, and continuously improving housing solutions.

By synthesizing the current state of AH research, the study will contribute to shaping more integrated, future-focused approaches to affordable and sustainable housing.

2. Materials and Methods

The process begins with retrieving data from Scopus search engines using keywords and titles, after which the database is further standardized. Manual removal of unrelated documents and the inclusion of additional relevant reviewed documents enable a streamlined scientometric analysis. The software tools used in this study are VOSviewer version 1.6.20 and RStudio version 2025.05.1 + 513.pro3, along with R package version R 4.4.1+. Analyzing plots, maps, and graphs related to authorship, keywords, citations, and word clustering, along with cross-examining these visuals, provides a comprehensive overview of the current research landscape. This also helps identify research themes, related topics, and potential future growth within the broader context of housing affordability.

2.1. Data Collection and Processing

The Scopus database offers the broadest coverage among primary scientific databases. The three-dimensional framework used to analyze publications from 2015 to 2024 in the context of AH focuses on affordability, sustainability, technology, and energy efficiency. Energy-efficient AH is closely related to various factors, including technological innovations, design practices, and sustainability principles. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods have been employed to measure affordability and sustainability, with independent variables including technological advancements, construction materials, design strategies, and sustainability criteria. Additionally, statistical tools have been used to identify associations between AH and key variables related to energy efficiency, providing deeper insights into how these factors influence the overall performance and affordability of housing solutions. An initial total of 3409 bibliographic records was identified using the keywords “affordable housing” and “sustainable housing.” Journal articles were selected because they are among the most reputable data sources due to their rigorous peer review process. This stage resulted in 1730 documents. Only English-language documents were considered in the next stage, reducing the count to 1680. A decade (2015–2024) was used to filter the data further, considering 595 documents for analysis. Finally, research and review articles were selected for the analysis. The constraints used are no Google Scholar documents, conference papers, and non-peer-reviewed documents.

Figure 1 depicts the document search process using the Scopus database. After reviewing the selected articles, the most relevant ones were chosen for in-depth analysis. The abstracts, introductions, conclusions, and specific sections of these articles were thoroughly examined to understand the parameters related to AH performance. Finally, 206 peer-reviewed articles were selected based on their relevance to sustainability, affordability, and energy efficiency. Specifically, the types and collection methods of these studies were reviewed to identify research focusing on the environmental efficiency of AH and the process parameters involved.

Visual analysis from VOSviewer and R Studio reveals key research trends. For example, the strong link between “green construction” and “developing countries” shows a growing focus on context-specific sustainability, directly illustrating how the global research community is framing the transition in affordable housing.

Table 1. Main information about the data used.

Description	Results
Timespan (10 years)	2015:2025
Sources (Journals)	45
Documents	595
Annual growth rate %	16.9
Document average age	4.37
Average citations per doc	19.09
References	36,360
Keywords plus	1970
Author’s keywords	2155
Authors	1599
Authors of single-authored docs	76
Single-authored docs	84
Collaboration—Co-Authors per doc	3.05
International co-authorships %	24.2
Total number of research articles	171
Total number of review articles	35

displays the primary bibliometric data obtained from the Scopus database for this study. In VOSviewer, the minimum occurrence threshold was set to one, and the clustering resolution was set to 0.8 to ensure clarity and thematic relevance. The maximum number of authors allowed per article is 25, and a minimum of one document published per author is required. To validate cluster robustness, we conducted sensitivity analyses by adjusting thresholds (3–7) and resolution values (0.6–1.0). The clusters remained consistent across different settings. Additionally, modularity and silhouette scores were evaluated, both of which indicated strong internal coherence. These steps confirm the reliability and interpretability of the network analysis.

2.2. Scientometric Analysis Methods

Scientometrics is a quantitative method used to measure research impact and map the knowledge structure and evolution of a field using large-scale scholarly data. This analysis employs various techniques; in this study, the R-package was used to interpret large datasets with multiple samples and proxies, enabling integrated, multi-method provenance analysis and improving the depth of insights gained. The study used four scientometric methods to analyze trends and patterns in affordable and sustainable housing research. First, co-author analysis was conducted to create co-occurrence networks of authors and countries, showing collaboration at both detailed and broad levels. Second, keyword co-occurrence analysis examined the relationships between keywords and the development of research topics. Third, co-citation analysis tracked the appearances of sources, the growth of research journals, the most cited sources, and current trending topics in the literature. Finally, cluster analysis and critical reviews used tools such as word clouds, word growth analysis, conceptual structure maps, word trees, and assessments of author and institutional productivity to provide a comprehensive view of research focus, trends, and knowledge structures.

In addition to showing scientometric trends, this section places key thematic clusters within established theoretical frameworks. The prominence of terms like “energy efficiency” and “low-cost materials” shows a growing link between environmental design principles and social equity. These connections highlight how AH research is increasingly adopting interdisciplinary approaches that combine policy, design innovation, and sustainability.

3. Results and Discussion

This results section presents the key findings of the bibliometric analysis on affordable and sustainable housing, organized into four parts. The first sub-section examines the co-authorship network of countries, highlighting international research collaborations and the most active contributors. The second subsection examines the thematic evolution, illustrating how research themes have evolved and shifted over time. The third sub-section analyzes the cumulative occurrence of sources, identifying the most influential journals and publication outlets in the field. The final sub-section focuses on trending topics, revealing the most frequently used and emerging keywords that indicate current priorities and future directions in the research landscape. Global shifts in digitalization and housing policy are redefining the concepts of affordability and sustainability. While Nordic models employ robust welfare systems, market-driven approaches often rely on technology to address equity issues. The adoption of the Internet of Things and artificial intelligence (AI) presents promising pathways to enhance both energy performance and affordability, aligning with modern urban narratives.

3.1. Publication Trends

Figure 2 shows the total number of documents published during the selected period (2015–2024). Figure 3 displays the countries of the authors based on inter-country and intra-country collaborations. It is observed that developed and emerging economic countries participated the most in studies on AH, thermal comfort, and energy efficiency, especially in the broader context of intra-country analysis and collaborations [88,89,90].

The distribution of publications on affordable and sustainable housing across different countries shows significant regional engagement. The United States leads with 120 documents, reflecting its extensive research and policy focus on housing issues. The United Kingdom follows closely with 75 documents, indicating a strong academic interest in AH within its urban planning and policy frameworks. Australia and China both contribute 61 documents, highlighting their active involvement in addressing housing affordability, particularly in relation to sustainability and urban development. This geographic distribution highlights the global relevance and varying priorities in discussions on affordable and sustainable housing. The United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, China, and India exhibit higher levels of cross-country collaboration and a notable connection within the co-occurrence network, as indicated by high betweenness and centrality values among both developed and developing countries. India is actively collaborating with other nations to explore domains of AH and sustainability.

Co-occurrence networks are a visual representation for primary text-mining purposes, enabling the understanding and analysis of the frequency at which two species, actors, or keywords appear together. Figure 4 shows the co-occurrence network using VOSviewer. There are three larger clusters of (i) ‘sustainable’, ‘development’ and ‘housing’, (ii) ‘sustainability’ and ‘AH’, and (iii) ‘energy efficiency. The immediate inference of composition of the clusters (i), (ii) and (iii) is the minimized scope for the inclusion of energy efficiency in ‘housing’, ‘AH’, or ‘sustainability goals’ within the fraternity. The co-occurrence network provides insight into the connection between energy efficiency, housing, and AH. There is a general sideline to the agenda, which involves disincentivizing it.

The stagnation in the progress of providing AH for those in poverty worldwide under the banner of UN-Habitat implies that not only is energy efficiency not being correlated to AH within the research fellowships but also sidelined in the architectural and construction fraternity during application. Such an inference implies that energy efficiency, though influenced by several factors related to state economics and financial efficiency, lacks financial sustainability [91,92,93,94,95]. Energy efficiency is crucial due to the depletion of energy sources and increasing demands in both developing and developed countries [96,97,98,99,100]. However, for a country like India, several factors affect the development of the renewable energy sector, hindering a shift towards clean energy and sustainable grids. Research on residential satisfaction in AH analyzed living conditions, amenities, and neighborhood characteristics affecting residents’ contentment [101]. The impact of energy affordability, health indicators, and housing conditions on the relationship between poor housing and health was analyzed [102]. A scientometric analysis of green building research in Africa examined publication trends and geographic distribution [103]. Sustainability and AH through resilient collaborative housing networks emphasize community engagement, resource efficiency, adaptability and transit [104,105]. This reverts the dialog to a necessary combination of climate positivity, energy efficiency, and financial sustainability. Many construction sectors have focused on innovation in alternative energy and affordable methods to improve energy efficiency, aiming to reach a high level of economic sustainability and make housing more affordable globally [106,107,108]. Even if there is progress in introducing cost-effective and energy-efficient solutions for energy utilization through alternative energy, it requires research and experiment-based development in the areas of energy efficiency, participation, innovation, and implementation of solutions in the shrinking segment of AH by the architectural community [109,110,111].

3.2. Cumulative Occurrence of the Source

Figure 5 empirically maps the relevant sources. Sustainability (Switzerland) had the highest number of documents. Cities, Journal of Housing and the Built environment, Housing Studies and International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis are at a far lower relevancy rate.

A significant portion of the remaining research articles feature a broader base of international authors collaborating on aspects of AH, thermal comfort, and energy efficiency. Under the same cluster of topics, residential energy and urban housing appeared after energy conservation. This implies that either energy conservation and policies, or their relevance, diminished with the rise in more mass-media-appreciated topics, such as sustainability and energy efficiency, in 2019. This leads to legally binding policies being exhausted as a relevant parameter for analyzing sustainability and energy efficiency in improved AH [112,113,114]. Keywords like AH and energy efficiency remain applicable within the corpora and beyond. However, it quantitatively diminished and the scope for AH was to be further clubbed with policies, energy efficiency innovation, and urban agendas for improved financial sustainability [115,116,117]. Additionally, for prospects of a comfortable household life ahead, there are necessary considerations to evaluate financial sustainability to create positive rebounds to combat environmental rebound effects, a cause-and-effect that would hamper energy efficiency on an urban scale.

Figure 6 outlines the pivotal sources of research articles pertinent to sustainability and AH. Several titles emerge as notable channels of scholarly inquiry. Notably, the journal Sustainability (Switzerland) holds a prominent position, reflecting its commitment to promoting sustainable practices and innovative housing solutions. Cities, Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, Housing Studies, and International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis stand out in the discourse surrounding energy-efficient building design and construction methodologies. Together, these sources constitute a diverse and robust foundation for advancing knowledge and driving progress towards more sustainable and AH solutions. Figure 7 displays the primary sources cited within the journal, providing valuable insights into the most influential publications within the field.

Several titles stand out for their significant impact, garnering the highest number of citations. Leading journals, such as Sustainability (Switzerland), Cities, Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, Housing Studies, and International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis, emerge as frontrunners, each boasting more documents and citations, thus securing their positions as the most cited sources within the context. This emphasizes their pivotal role in shaping discourse and advancing knowledge within the domain under study.

3.3. Word Cloud, Word Growth and Word Tree Maps

A ‘word cloud’ or ‘tag cloud’ visually represents word frequency. It is analyzed based on (i) Word Cloud Frequency, the commonality of appearance of the keyword within the cloud formation, and (ii) Word Cloud Measure is the size of the keyword concerning the other words in a word cloud formation and, (iii) Word Cloud Proximity, greater the distance between words indicates greater dissociation between the points of research regarding ‘relevance degree’ (centrality) within the fraternity, hence a measure of the influence of a word on its surrounding clusters. The three main keywords are ‘affordable’, ‘housing,’ ‘sustainability’, and ‘energy efficiency’, as per Figure 8. The words, ’housing,‘ ’energy efficiency,’ and ‘sustainability’ are closely linked, suggesting that current research trends and practical applications have a significant impact on it. However, a degree of dissolution surfaces when analyzing the proximal words to ‘sustainability’, ‘housing’, and ‘energy efficiency’, nullifying their impact on AH. Not only is ‘affordable’ of negligible size and in proximity to only ‘sustainability’, but the general inference is also that it has a minimal impact on the housing segment and is entirely uninfluenced by the energy efficiency schedule [118,119,120]. Additionally, architectural design is close to affordability and considerable size. Still, it remains disconnected from energy efficiency, which is closely related to “costs” and “construction costs,” yet is detached from considerations of cost-effectiveness, cost analysis, and avenues for alternative energy sources [121,122,123]. The aspects of defect-free construction, energy planning for improved efficiency and policy sensitivity of AH are pivotal in any urban planning manifesto [124,125].

A word growth graph indicates the cumulative occurrences of words in numerous studies over time parameters. The words that stood out the most in the studies covered were AH, architectural design, energy efficiency, environmental impact, housing, social housing, sustainability, sustainable development, urban housing, and urban planning. The results of analyzing these words are based on three parameters, each with two or three sub-parameters, as shown in Figure 9. The analysis of the publications revealed a range of key terms and their occurrences in the literature, reflecting the primary themes within the AH sector. “Affordable Housing” emerged as the most frequent keyword, followed by general “Housing” and “Housing Policy”. This could imply that the AH category grows with the progress of sustainability, sustainable development, and, most importantly, energy efficiency. Housing is an increasing keyword. AH, sustainability, environmental effect, and energy efficiency are strongly associated with the growing demand for more interdisciplinary research [126,127,128]. Soto et al. [129] developed a sustainability assessment for low-cost housing, evaluating thermal comfort, internal conditions, and environmental impact using PET-based prototypes and simulations. Okoye et al. [130] showed that design simplicity strongly improves affordability in Nigerian low-income housing, while historical U.S. initiatives demonstrated limited but lasting community integration through participatory, space-age design approaches [131]. Research in Kolkata’s informal settlements emphasizes that renting and leasing benefit large households and migrants, suggesting that diverse tenure options improve housing outcomes [132]. European social housing increasingly applies sustainability and social impact approaches; a Paris case study showed positive social, environmental, and economic returns from social impact investing [133]. Mulliner et al. [134] compared multiple-criteria decision-making methods for assessing sustainable housing affordability in Liverpool and confirmed their robustness. Innovative approaches include modular, circular, and biobased housing [135]; replicable net-zero-energy rowhouses in Philadelphia that offer long-term affordability [136]; and community training centers that support self-help housing and skills development in developing countries [137]. Warren [138] highlighted that higher rent burdens and city rents, rather than housing supply, increase material hardship, emphasizing targeted assistance. Prefabricated container-based housing in Shanghai demonstrates that net-zero-energy designs minimize life-cycle impacts and emissions, providing scalable, energy-efficient, sustainable solutions [139]. These studies on affordable and sustainable housing highlight integrated approaches combining design, technology, social policy, and environmental performance. Governments can introduce subsidies or tax credits for developers using recycled or low-carbon materials, promoting sustainable construction without increasing costs for end-users. Establish affordable financing options, such as low-interest loans and green bonds, specifically for low-income housing projects that incorporate energy-efficient and sustainable design features. Prioritize zoning reforms and land-use policies that integrate AH into sustainable urban development plans, ensuring both environmental and social equity goals are achieved.

A word tree is a purely empirical plot of the number of cumulated occurrences and the percentage of the keyword’s relevance within the corpora. Figure 10 illustrates the frequency analysis of terms within the AH literature, highlighting several key themes. “Affordable Housing” appears most frequently, comprising 22.4% of the terms, followed by “Housing” at 7.1%. Key policy and planning aspects such as “Housing Policy” (5.7%), “Urban Housing” (5%), and “Housing Market” (4.7%) also rank highly. The following popular keywords are “Sustainability” (4.5%) and “Energy Efficiency” (3%). Parameters of sustainable development and affordability are also required to analyze housing market requirements in terms of financial sustainability, demand, and environmental impact. Lacking involvement exists in studies investigating the current housing market on AH and sustainability [140,141,142,143].

Mastering thermal comfort in architectural design is crucial for achieving financially sustainable improvements across various sectors and regions over time. India lacks sufficient focus on urban planning and development, leading to fragmented outcomes [144]. This extends to cost-effective measures in construction and energy efficiency, which improve financial sustainability; hence, there is an apparent consequential dissociation from AH. Several key sustainability performance indicators for guiding AH development were compiled through a literature review and a questionnaire survey that gathered insights from government officials, developers, and academics in the Chinese construction sector [145]. One-quarter of the global urban population lives in informal settlements, facing overcrowding, insecurity, and health risks. UN SDG 11 aims to access safe and AH by 2030, highlighting the urgent need for more permanent and AH [146].

The housing cost increase supports sustainability and recommends AH policies, including rent control and targeted support, to reduce costs without jeopardizing financial stability [147]. Key benefits of sustainable green housing highlighted a strong consensus among developers and academics to increase adoption, investment, and balanced environmental growth in housing [148]. Modeling residents’ activity patterns during urban emergencies using Shanghai data to examine how interventions such as remote work and community services influence behavior, thereby supporting human-centric and inclusive emergency response strategies [149].

4. Affordable and Sustainable Housing

4.1. Case Studies

The global AH crisis necessitates innovative, scalable, and multifaceted solutions that strike a balance between cost efficiency and long-term environmental sustainability and social equity. Addressing this issue calls for coordinated efforts in policy, technology, community development, and financial innovation to build resilient and inclusive housing systems.

Table 2. Recent case studies on affordable and sustainable housing.

Ref.	Project Name	Key Features and Findings
Tanaka and Sugishita [150]	Tokyo’s shared housing market	Focus on large-scale quantitative analysis of shared houses.
		Predominantly in Tokyo’s 23 wards; mix of female-only and mixed-sex houses; emphasis on quality of life (shared living, common spaces, convenience) over low rent; location influences marketing
Canelas [151]	Municipal-led public–private partnership	Focuses on utilizing public–private partnerships for AH on municipal land.
		Frames crisis as an “affordable housing crisis”; suggests increased private sector role is inevitable; highlights that agenda-setting for public–private partnerships is complex and ambiguous, representing a significant shift in public housing policy.
Aregawi and Genovese [152]	Ethiopia’s urban housing crisis	Focus on political-economic roots of land/housing unaffordability.
		Land is unaffordable for all income levels; crisis stems from constitutional, political, and governance issues.
van Hoof et al. [153]	Environmental sustainability for older adults	Focus on importance of sustainable built environments.
		Sustainable practices (minimizing carbon, improving air quality) improve comfort and lower utility costs, making aging in place more affordable and comfortable for older people.
Dakyaga et al. [154]	Collaborative housing societies in Dar es Salaam	Focus on configurations of collaborative housing in an African city.
		Proposes a “Collaborative Housing Configurations” framework; practices involve enrolment, resourcing, governance, and risk mitigation; these practices both facilitate and impede AH access.
Wang and Tan [155]	Multi-owned low-cost housing in Malaysia	Focus on maintenance and community satisfaction in low-cost housing.
		Success factors: physical environment, social capital, rules, stakeholder interest, adaptation, racial relationships. Recommends government subsidies for maintenance.
Noureldin et al. [156]	housing cooperatives in Greater Cairo, Egypt	Focus on institutional constraints on housing cooperatives.
		Reveals a “horizontal disequilibrium” in housing service distribution; cooperatives are constrained, losing autonomy for financial support; recommends addressing legislative barriers and adopting participatory, bottom-up approaches.
Alzamil [157]	Cooperative housing in Saudi Arabia	Focus on developing a framework for cooperative housing production.
		Identifies cooperative housing as a path to affordability; framework involves reforming the entire housing system within a participatory model compatible with low-income needs.
Akinwande and Hui [158]	Informal housing strategies of the urban poor (Lagos, Nigeria)	Focus on learning from informal strategies across the housing supply value chain.
		Use of cooperatives and microfinance. Reliance on rental housing as a more accessible alternative to ownership. Suggest institutionalizing these strategies.
Khassawneh and Khasawneh [159]	Zabdah affordable housing project (Jordan)	Focus on post-occupancy evaluation of resident satisfaction.
		Moderate satisfaction levels: tiny dwelling areas are a key problem; good neighborhood services are crucial; lack of green spaces reduces quality of life; family size and dwelling type are key determinants of satisfaction.
Xu et al. [160]	Building policy mixes for sustainability.	Focus on scientometric review of policies for building energy efficiency and carbon reduction.
		Key topics include policy instruments, green AH, carbon pricing, and waste reduction. Research frontiers include split incentives, retrofitting, and interdisciplinary policy mixes.
Akinwande and Hui [161]	Housing strategies for the urban poor (Lagos, Nigeria)	Focuses on expert-driven solutions for AH provision for the urban poor.
		Findings revealed that inclusive government policies, the use of alternative building materials, targeted financial models, and reserved urban land are crucial strategies for enhancing AH delivery and SDGs.
Moghayedi et al. [162]	SIAH-livable (South Africa)	Use of cooperatives and microfinance. Reliance on rental housing as a more accessible alternative to ownership.
		Compared to conventional low-cost housing, the SIAH design achieved a 55.17% reduction in water usage, a 21.06% reduction in energy demand, and a 66.9% reduction in embodied energy. It remained within government-defined low-cost housing budgets.
Jackson et al. [163]	The dwellings, Tallahassee (USA)	Focus on tiny home communities as an intervention for homelessness.
		The challenge of implementing a tiny home village was that funding constraints undermined the project’s original goals. These pressures resulted in an inability to maintain equity and affordability, ultimately preventing the development from effectively serving its intended homeless people.
Mazzetto et al. [164]	Affordable housing and urban policy in Beirut (Lebanon)	Focus on building laws’ impact on AH and sustainability in Beirut.
		Critiques 2004 building laws for favoring developers and wealthy investors, leading to vertical expansion that excludes low-income families and harms the environment. Identifies a large stock of unused residential units as a potential source for increasing AH supply.
Aga Kuś et al. [165]	Self-Organized Housing in Saint Martin	Focus on designing resilient housing for low-income, hazard-prone areas by understanding resident-led construction.
		Analyzes temporality in self-built homes using “Layers of Change” theory. Proposes “Designing for a Flow” as a novel approach that balances durability, functionality, and aesthetics over time, adapting to incremental building and environmental risks.
Prasittisopin [166]	Three-dimensional Printing for Smart Cities	Focus on additive manufacturing in sustainable urban development.
		Highlights the benefits like reduced construction waste, lower costs, and faster building of AH. Explores integration with AI, Digital Twins, and innovative materials for optimized infrastructure. Identifies challenges in scalability, cost, and the need for interdisciplinary collaboration.

offers a comprehensive overview of research from recent international case studies and peer-reviewed academic journals, providing a critical analysis of various strategies, emerging trends, and practical applications. This synthesis emphasizes successful models, identifies ongoing gaps, and guides decision-makers toward evidence-based pathways to promote equitable and sustainable housing worldwide.

The key findings on projects encompassed cooperative housing models, public–private partnerships, the use of sustainable technologies, and upgrading informal settlements. They collectively highlight that success hinges not only on technical innovation but also on supportive policies, community engagement, and a deep understanding of local socio-economic contexts, offering valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners alike. Figure 11 illustrates the framework for improving affordable and sustainable housing. The primary core strategies to reach affordable and sustainable housing are discussed in this section.

4.2. Circular and Industrialized Construction

Circular and industrialized construction emphasizes resource efficiency through modularization, reuse, and life-cycle thinking. By integrating prefabrication, design for disassembly, and cooperative governance, these approaches minimize waste while enhancing affordability and scalability in housing delivery. Davis et al. [167] reviewed circular industrialized housing and highlighted its potential to deliver sustainable, affordable homes through design for disassembly and reuse. They demonstrated that the required research primarily focuses on (re)designing, with gaps in governance and social housing, providing a roadmap for equitable and circular housing. Barbhuiya et al. [168] examined Assam-type houses—traditional bamboo, timber, and mud structures—as climate-adapted, AH in Northeast India. It evaluates innovations such as fly ash bricks, ferrocement, and hempcrete to enhance durability and sustainability. Addressing regional issues such as floods, earthquakes, and transportation limitations, the study highlighted prefabrication and 3D printing as emerging solutions, emphasizing the role of policy initiatives in advancing low-cost, sustainable housing.

Van Opstal et al. [169] examined housing cooperatives as facilitators of circular strategies in the built environment. Through interviews with cooperative leaders, policymakers, and practitioners, the study demonstrated that collective ownership and participatory governance support lifecycle planning, shared resources, and circular design. However, regulatory constraints, slow decision-making, and limited financing hinder scaling up. The research emphasizes the potential of cooperatives to merge affordability, sustainability, and social resilience in housing delivery. Szigeti et al. [170] developed an accessible ecological footprint calculator for small and medium-sized enterprises, demonstrating that the embodied carbon in new buildings vastly exceeds that of energy retrofits. Their findings highlight the environmental superiority of renovation and help guide investors and policymakers toward lower-impact urban development.

Together, these studies reveal that advancing circular construction requires not only technological innovation but also supportive governance, financial models, and community engagement. The transition toward industrialized, circular housing holds promises for achieving sustainable, equitable, and resilient urban development.

4.3. Climate-Responsive and Resilient Design

Climate-responsive design adapts the built environment to evolving climatic challenges, ensuring comfort, safety, and energy efficiency. Resilient strategies combine traditional knowledge, modern materials, and data-driven modeling to mitigate heat, floods, and weather extremes. Li et al. [171] developed a framework linking housing, climate, and health, outlining pathways of impact and policy strategies for climate-resilient housing. Anthropogenic climate change is intensifying temperature and weather extremes, making living conditions more hazardous and straining the role of housing in protecting health. Inadequate access to secure, affordable homes deepens climate-related inequalities. Since housing design and operation influence emissions, improving them is vital.

Aruta et al. [172] assessed traditional and innovative building retrofits—including thermal insulation, double-skin façades, and green roofs—under evolving climate conditions. By analyzing energy performance across time and locations, it was found that both retrofit types are effective for heating, while innovative systems perform better for cooling under moderate conditions. However, during extreme conditions, traditional insulation provided more stability. They emphasized resilience-focused retrofit strategies for long-term energy efficiency and climate adaptability. Herath et al. [173] examined urban resilience in Sydney by linking climate stress (urban heat) with social stresses such as housing unaffordability and disadvantage. Using a spatial framework, it identifies 11 high-risk areas that are most affected by the combined effects of heat and social vulnerability. They emphasized the importance of place-based, context-specific policies to strengthen community resilience and address climate and social inequalities in cities.

Nevárez Martínez and Peck [174] analyzed a pioneering Zero-Net-Energy housing project for farmworkers in California. Using document reviews and interviews, they demonstrated how environmental and affordability objectives can be aligned to reduce energy burdens and build political support. The “green halo effect” minimized opposition, suggesting that linking sustainability to social justice can help advance inclusive and resilient housing models for vulnerable populations. Perdamaian and Zai [175] critiqued Indonesia’s One Million House Program, finding that simple housing often fails integrated livability, affordability, and sustainability requirements. The authors propose integrated performance modeling to address the inherent limitations of housing design, occupant needs, and climate, which are currently assessed in isolation.

Collectively, the studies emphasize adaptive design as a critical pathway to long-term sustainability. Integrating resilience principles into housing—from local materials to zero-energy systems—strengthens communities, reduces risk, and promotes equitable adaptation in a changing climate.

4.4. Nature-Based and Energy-Efficient Solutions

Nature-based and energy-efficient solutions integrate ecological systems into housing design, enhancing comfort while lowering environmental impacts. Strategies such as green roofs, porous pavements, and AI-assisted material optimization improve energy performance and resilience. Asamoah et al. [176] explored the integration of nature-based solutions in housing through a systematic literature review using VOSviewer visualization, and content analysis. It identified key elements—green roofs, walls, indoor greenery, porous pavements, landscaping, and rainwater systems—highlighting benefits such as energy efficiency, flood prevention, and sustainable water management. Despite adoption barriers such as low awareness and limited policy support, the study emphasizes the mainstreaming of nature-based solutions globally to advance sustainable and resilient housing, and support SDGs 11, 12, 13, and 15.

Tiwari and Vij [177] explored Neo-vernacular architecture. They insisted on blending traditional wisdom with modern technology to create climate-responsive, culturally rooted designs. Through case studies of Aravena, Kéré, and Doshi, it demonstrated how the use of local materials, passive systems, and community engagement fosters affordability, inclusivity, and ecological resilience. Despite regulatory and material barriers, Neo-vernacular architecture is presented as a holistic path to sustainability, calling for policy reform, education, and flexibility to promote context-sensitive, resilient built environments. Alhassan et al. [178] presented a futuristic framework for a sustainable and resilient built environment integrating AI, sustainability, and resilience principles. Using a virtual city model, it compares alkali-activated binder concrete with traditional cement, finding up to a 25% reduction in CO₂ emissions in the proposed structures. They highlighted how AI-enabled smart buildings can enhance energy efficiency, structural monitoring, and long-term sustainability. The findings highlight that embracing natural processes and innovative low-carbon technologies can deliver multiple co-benefits—energy savings, biodiversity enhancement, and climate resilience—advancing housing toward regenerative sustainability and global SDG targets.

4.5. Smart and Data-Driven Constructions

Smart and data-driven construction leverages digital technologies, AI, and analytics to enhance housing performance, optimize resource management, and inform policy planning. Data integration enables precise decision-making across all phases of design, construction, and operation. Boanada-Fuchs et al. [179] identified a critical data gap, finding that half of all slums are located outside city administrative borders, particularly in Africa and the Middle East. This outward spatial growth necessitates land equivalent to Egypt’s area by 2030 to meet SDG 11.1, requiring policy actions that transcend municipal boundaries to upgrade informal settlements effectively. Wang and Jacoby [180] analyzed Guangzhou’s state-led surge in AH, which now exceeds market supply. Using a design research perspective, they highlight how contextual policy experimentation and housing standards shape outcomes. This signifies a significant shift from marketization towards creating long-term public housing assets through tailored design governance.

These studies demonstrate that intelligent modeling and real-time data systems can transform how housing is designed, monitored, and governed. Smart construction supports sustainable urban planning, enhances transparency, and enables evidence-based responses to social and environmental challenges.

4.6. Integrated Socioeconomic Perspectives

Socioeconomic perspectives highlight the interdependence of housing with equity, affordability, and inclusive growth. These studies examine the policies, governance, and market structures that shape access to dignified and sustainable housing. Tu et al. [181] analyzed the determinants affecting the development of small and medium-sized enterprises across 21 EU nations using random-effects statistical techniques. Their findings reveal that crime, gender employment inequality, and economic prosperity negatively influence its growth, while lower corruption and improved social protection support its employment. Results highlight demographic and social welfare factors—such as youth unemployment and housing access—as essential for fostering entrepreneurial capacity and sustainable participation in small and medium-sized enterprises in achieving the SDGs. Ebekozien et al. [182] investigated the challenges of AH in Nigerian slums using qualitative methods, revealing strong links between inadequate housing, weak institutional frameworks, and rising public health risks. Challenges include weak governance, funding gaps, and insufficient infrastructure. The study recommends strengthening housing institutions, upgrading slums, and implementing robust policy reforms. Affordable, serviced housing is emphasized as essential for reducing disease burden and achieving SDG 3.

Biswas and Mukerji [183] investigated the buyer preferences that influence the sales of privately developed AH in Kolkata. Surveying 383 households, they find that misalignment between supply and buyer expectations drives unsold units. Neighborhood and building attributes have a strong influence on demand, whereas factors at the complex level hold weaker significance. The study fills a key knowledge gap, stressing the need for demand-aligned design, amenities, and location considerations in AH development. Zuka [184] examined outcomes of market-based housing provision in Malawi, highlighting its counterproductive effects on low-income households. The study shows market approaches reinforce inequality, capital accumulation, and exclusion, worsening housing access. Findings call for more decisive state intervention to ensure equity and affordability. The research highlights the limitations of purely market-based solutions and underscores the necessity of inclusive housing policies in developing country urban contexts.

Antczak-Stępień and Załęczna [185] evaluated the potential impacts of adopting Inclusionary Housing policies in Poland, referencing the Lex Developer Act. Using legal review, data analysis, and case studies, they assess developers’ obligations to contribute housing stock for public use. Results indicate context-specific outcomes, emphasizing that IH success depends on local socio-economic conditions. Their findings guide policymakers seeking mixed-tenure, socially integrated housing strategies. Boukari et al. [186] analyzed urban sprawl in Abomey-Calavi, Benin, driven by rising land costs and peri-urban migration. Despite regulatory efforts, the model results show persistent sprawl. Drawing lessons from Guangzhou, they recommend controlling land supply and strengthening AH provision. Findings highlight the need for integrated land-use regulation and housing policy to manage peri-urban expansion effectively.

Lai et al. [187] investigated how post-pandemic sociodemographic factors influence preferences for sustainable AH in Malaysia’s Klang Valley. Using survey data from 316 low- and middle-income households and logistic regression analysis, it finds that marital status and ethnicity most strongly shape preferences. Results offer novel insights into post-pandemic inclusive housing design and targeted policy strategies. Gazzeh [188] investigated housing affordability challenges in Saudi Arabia, focusing on expatriate “potential tenants” who face limited access to ownership and mortgages. Using exploratory analysis and blended affordability metrics, the research revealed that regional disparities, persistent rental stress, and barriers for expatriates exist despite recent price improvements. Findings highlighted inequities in rental access and offer policy insights to support more inclusive, SDG-aligned housing strategies.

Gallagher et al. [189] examined infill development as a strategy to increase housing supply and affordability in Queensland, Australia. Survey results from 231 developers and planners reveal that discretionary planning processes often deter the development of innovative or diverse housing types. Developers tend to meet only the minimum compliance requirements to avoid uncertainty and delays, resulting in a continued preference for detached housing and limiting much-needed density and typological diversity. Hameed et al. [190] investigated government-run shelter homes in Lahore as a response to urban homelessness. Using interviews with staff and occupants, they found strong user acceptance driven by a sense of dignity, security, and supportive services. Most occupants were economic migrants with multi-local living patterns. They emphasized the importance of tailored policy interventions, focusing on AH, stakeholder coordination, and long-term support to ensure dignity-based solutions for homelessness.

Fernández et al. [191] assessed the implications of European Union’s environmental, social and governance group legislation for social housing organizations. Based on interviews with finance actors, findings indicated that the increased reporting burdens and limited financial benefits mainly favor larger providers. Stricter energy-efficiency mandates raise costs and risk undermining affordability missions, creating inequitable access to green finance and tensions between decarbonization goals and social housing affordability. Chadchan et al. [192] identified a critical trade-off for migrant workers in Bengaluru. Their AHP analysis shows a strong preference for proximity to work (43.36%) and affordability. However, this often confines them to employer-provided, overcrowded, and poorly ventilated units, compromising health and well-being despite meeting location and cost needs.

Yücel and Durán-Díaz [193] explored the integration of degrowth principles, such as equity and ecology, into zoning. Analyzing Texas codes, they find these principles are minimal and constrained by an economic growth focus. Effective integration requires significant reform to disengage zones from profitability and prioritize collective resource management and self-sufficiency. Mrani et al. [194] studied housing informality in Rabat, finding “mirroring” and “contrast” patterns in unauthorized modifications across affluent, middle-class, and affordable settings. It revealed that shared residents need to transcend wealth, discrediting poverty as the sole driver and urging the adoption of inclusive strategies for diverse housing priorities. From a techno-socioeconomic perspective, the success of the affordable and sustainable housing project stems from the integration of technical solutions, such as passive design and the use of local materials, which reduce both embodied energy and costs. Economic gain is complemented by social innovations that promote community engagement, demonstrating that true affordability is achieved through sustainable, holistic design. True affordability extends far beyond minimizing upfront costs—it represents a balanced vision where environmental responsibility, social equity, and technological innovation work in harmony [195,196,197].

Taken together, the evidence shows that true housing affordability extends beyond cost—it encompasses social justice, environmental stewardship, and economic opportunity. Integrating socioeconomic dimensions ensures that sustainable housing policies are both equitable and resilient, strengthening communities and advancing the SDGs.

4.7. Transdisciplinary Research

Transdisciplinary research is a collaborative approach that combines knowledge, methods, and perspectives from multiple disciplines to solve complex issues, such as affordable and sustainable housing [198,199,200]. It is vital for exploring influential factors related to improving sustainability and AH for several key reasons.

• Sustainable and AH are complex issues involving many fields such as architecture, urban planning, engineering, economics, sociology, environmental science, and public policy. Transdisciplinary research enables experts from diverse backgrounds to collaborate and generate comprehensive insights.
• The factors affecting sustainability and AH are interconnected and often cannot be fully understood or solved within a single discipline. This approach enables the study of complex interactions among environmental, social, economic, and technological factors, thereby facilitating the development of holistic solutions.
• Housing policies and practices affect many stakeholders, including residents, developers, policymakers, community organizations, and environmental advocates. Transdisciplinary research encourages meaningful stakeholder participation, ensuring that their perspectives, needs, and expertise are incorporated into the study and recommendations.
• Bringing together experts with different knowledge and skills, transdisciplinary research promotes innovation and creativity when solving housing challenges. Collaboration across disciplines can lead to innovative approaches, technologies, and strategies that enhance housing sustainability and affordability.
• The main factors related to sustainability and AH should positively influence real-world policy, planning, and development. Transdisciplinary research seeks to translate its findings into practical recommendations, resulting in tangible improvements in housing affordability, environmental sustainability, and social equity.
• Achieving sustainable and AH requires long-term strategies that consider environmental, economic, and social sustainability. This research supports the application of systems thinking to develop resilient housing policies that adapt to changing societal and ecological conditions.

Through cross-disciplinary collaboration and stakeholder involvement, transdisciplinary methods can produce more effective and sustainable solutions to improve housing affordability, accessibility, and overall quality of life. The link between affordability and sustainability is being increasingly emphasized in discussions on urban development. While AH advances social equity by providing access to shelter, sustainability ensures environmental and economic resilience. Conflicts often emerge, as low-cost housing may compromise ecological standards, while sustainable designs can increase construction costs, potentially impacting affordability.

4.8. Barriers and Remedial Actions

Gaps hinder the advancement of affordable and sustainable housing in policy, finance, technology, institutional coordination, social inclusion, data systems, research, and climate-adaptive planning [201,202]. Affordable and sustainable housing face challenges in technology, policy, finance, governance, community, research, circular systems, climate, and planning infrastructure [203,204]. Coordinated efforts across these areas are necessary to expand equitable and climate-smart housing.

Table 3. Barriers and remedial action plans for improving AH.

Barrier Category	Key Barriers	Remedial Actions
Technological & Innovation	• Limited research in eco-materials	• Increase research funding and innovation incentives
	• Slow adoption of renewable and smart tech	• Support pilot projects and tech-transfer platforms
	• High upfront cost for green systems	• Subsidies/tax incentives for green technologies
Policy & Regulatory	• Unaligned housing & sustainability policies	• Integrate sustainable housing into national policy
	• Regulatory barriers to green construction	• Streamline permitting, update codes to mandate resilience
	• Weak or outdated building codes	• Establish clear standards for sustainable development
Financial & Economic	• Limited access to microfinance/subsidies	• Expand microfinance, and green bonds
	• High initial cost of sustainable systems	• Offer grants, low-interest loans, and tax incentives
	• Cost-environment trade-offs	• Implement cost–benefit frameworks emphasizing life-cycle savings
Governance & Institutional	• Weak capacity and coordination	• Strengthen institutional capacity and inter-agency coordination
	• Lack of transparency/accountability	• Adopt transparent reporting and monitoring systems
	• Fragmented implementation	• Create centralized housing sustainability authorities
Social & Community	• Low community engagement	• Introduce participatory planning processes
	• Lack of inclusion in planning	• Prioritize vulnerable groups in housing policies
	• Social inequities in access	• Promote social integration and community-driven housing
Knowledge & Research	• Insufficient interdisciplinary research	• Promote collaboration between academia, industry, and government
	• Knowledge gaps in sustainable-affordable models	• Invest in capacity-building & education programs
	• Lack of performance data/metrics	• Establish data platforms and standardized indicators
Circular & Industrialized Construction	• Lack of circular-economy policies	• Mandate circular construction practices & waste recovery
	• Limited reuse/recycling infrastructure	• Build infrastructure for material reuse and recycling
	• Resistance to modular/industrialized methods	• Demonstration projects showcasing modular efficiency
Climate & Environmental	• Climate risk exposure	• Incorporate climate-risk mapping & resilient design codes
	• Need for resilience capacity	• Promote natural ventilation, passive cooling, zero-energy upgrades
	• Limited retrofit funding	• Finance climate-resilient retrofits
Urban Planning & Infrastructure	• Low adoption of nature-based solutions	• Mainstream nature-based and passive design strategies
	• Insufficient integration of green & passive systems	• Require green infrastructure in planning regulations
		• Integrate transit-oriented and low-carbon development

illustrates the significant barriers that sustainably hinder the advancement of AH, along with potential remedial actions.

4.9. Recommendations

A balanced approach, combining green building practices with cost-effective measures such as energy-efficient materials and government subsidies, is essential [205,206]. Policymakers must address market failures and support innovative financing to meet both objectives. Without achieving this balance, housing strategies risk being either environmentally harmful or socially exclusive, thereby weakening long-term urban resilience and inclusivity.

• Governments and industry should prioritize investment in research and pilot projects that test eco-friendly materials, low-cost renewable systems, and smart building technologies. Policies that support innovation clusters, green certification, and technology transfer can accelerate large-scale adoption of efficient, affordable, and resilient housing solutions.
• Policymakers should encourage circular construction practices—such as modular building, reuse, and material recovery—alongside nature-based and energy-efficient design. Establishing incentives, regulatory frameworks, and demonstration projects can promote closed-loop, low-carbon housing systems that strike a balance between affordability and environmental regeneration.
• National and local housing policies should embed climate adaptation and resilience as core objectives. This includes updating building codes, funding retrofits, and supporting designs that utilize local materials, passive systems, and zero-energy principles to reduce vulnerability and ensure housing stability under extreme climate conditions.
• Governments should design housing programs that integrate affordability with social equity and community participation. Strengthening inclusive governance, expanding access to microfinance, and leveraging public–private partnerships, along with tailoring subsidies to local contexts, can foster equitable, sustainable, and SDG-aligned housing outcomes.
• Policymakers should promote collaboration among architects, planners, economists, and social scientists to create holistic, evidence-based housing solutions. Establishing national data platforms, standardizing sustainability indicators, and implementing long-term monitoring frameworks will enhance accountability, inform adaptive policies, and ensure continuous improvement in housing performance.

Effective AH strategies combine affordability with livability, sustainability, and accessibility, supported through financial assistance, strategic planning, and regulatory frameworks. This study presents key findings from a bibliometric analysis of affordable and sustainable housing, providing a comprehensive overview of global research trends.

Sustainable housing and affordable housing are closely connected and support each other. Sustainable housing reduces environmental impact and enhances energy efficiency, durability, and occupant well-being. Affordable housing aims to provide safe, adequate homes for lower-income families. When combined, sustainable design decreases long-term costs through reduced energy use and less maintenance, making homes more affordable over time. Although the initial costs for green materials and technology can be higher, supportive policies, financing options, and new construction techniques help bridge this gap. Ultimately, integrating sustainability into affordable housing fosters healthier, more resilient, and economically accessible communities.

4.10. Limitations of the Present Study

This study primarily utilizes established academic databases for document collection, which may limit the diversity of sources. It focuses solely on English-language publications, potentially introducing language bias and overlooking valuable research in other languages. Also, the chosen time span and exclusion of non-peer-reviewed literature might impact the depth and broad applicability of the findings. The study’s main limitations are described as follows.

• The present study uses mainly Scopus databases to collect documents, but it includes about 85% of the documents are already indexed by Web of Science. Popular databases, such as Scopus and Web of Science, could be considered in future research to produce more evident and solid findings.
• The current analysis was limited to English-language publications, which may introduce potential language bias and exclude relevant research in other languages.
• The selected time span (2015–2024) may omit earlier foundational studies or recent developments not yet indexed.
• Only peer-reviewed journal articles were included, excluding gray literature, conference papers, and policy documents that could provide additional insights.

These constraints may impact the completeness and applicability of the findings.

Future research should address these limitations by incorporating a broader range of sources, languages, and time periods to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the topic. By embracing sustainable practices, fostering socially inclusive communities, and advancing technically efficient design to create homes that endure, empower, and inspire. This integrated approach ensures that the built environment not only meets present needs but also safeguards future generations, reinforcing housing as a foundation for dignified living, resilient communities, and long-term economic value. True affordability is not simply a cost metric; it is a commitment to quality, equity, and sustainability for all.

5. Conclusions

This study extends beyond its methodological scope by offering a conceptual perspective on how technological and socioeconomic factors jointly shape housing affordability and sustainability. The scientometric findings suggest that aligning technological innovations—such as green construction and energy efficiency—with broader socioeconomic structures, including inclusive policies and equitable income distribution, is crucial for achieving durable housing resilience. These insights provide a foundational framework for guiding future research and informing policy decisions that strike a balance between technological progress and social equity. Some critical areas in need of focus are as follows.

• Achieving sustainable and AHrequires ongoing innovation in eco-friendly materials, renewable energy systems, and smart technologies. Combining thoughtful design, passive strategies, and digital tools enhances energy efficiency, resource management, and occupant well-being, while reducing environmental and economic costs. Technological progress thus forms the foundation for resilient, high-performance, and accessible housing.
• Circular and industrialized construction, when coupled with nature-based and energy-efficient approaches, can turn the built environment into a regenerative system. Modularization, reuse, and ecological intelligence cut waste, conserve resources, and enhance long-term sustainability. Reaching this goal requires supportive governance, innovative financing, and inclusive collaboration to expand resource-efficient and climate-aligned housing solutions.
• Incorporating climate-resilient and resilience principles into housing design is vital for adapting to environmental changes and safeguarding vulnerable populations. Blending traditional wisdom with adaptive retrofits, zero-energy systems, and data-driven strategies boosts livability and disaster preparedness. Building resilience into policy, design, and governance ensures the development of durable, inclusive, and low-carbon housing environments.
• True affordability goes beyond cost—it also involves fairness, inclusivity, and social empowerment. Effective governance, participatory design, and innovative financing mechanisms, such as microfinance, public–private partnerships, and subsidies, are essential for expanding impact. Strong institutions, community involvement, and learning from global policy models enable the creation of fair, resilient, and SDG-aligned housing systems.
• Addressing the challenges of sustainable and AH is inherently multidimensional, requiring collaboration across architecture, engineering, economics, and social sciences. Transdisciplinary research promotes holistic solutions and evidence-based policymaking. Standardized sustainability metrics, long-term performance assessments, and continuous feedback loops ensure accountability, innovation, and the lasting success of housing initiatives.

The primary research areas in affordable and sustainable housing include housing affordability, sustainability, and energy efficiency. AH must catch up in developing countries like India to achieve the goal of housing for all. By pursuing more research in these areas and fostering collaboration across disciplines, policymakers and practitioners can make informed decisions, develop evidence-based policies, and implement effective strategies to promote sustainability and AH for all.

This study bridges the gap between scientometric analysis and practical policy for sustainable, affordable housing. Connecting research trends to on-the-ground applications highlights overlooked intersections between technology, socioeconomics, and affordability. Global research focuses on emerging themes, such as digital innovation and inclusive urbanism, uniting data with actionable solutions.