Resilient Urbanization: A Systematic Review on Urban Discourse in Pakistan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Urban Discourse in Pakistan
3.1. Urbanization in Pakistan
3.2. Urban Challenges in Pakistan
- (a)
- Climate change: climate change is not only a big threat to urban resilience in Pakistan but it also affects almost the entire world. It has both direct and indirect effects. Direct ones include storms, typhoons, and heatwaves, the inundation of coastal areas due to sea-level rise, temperature increase, and disturbances in rainfall patterns. Indirect ones in urban areas include severe flooding resulting in road blockages, blackouts, risk of water or vector-borne diseases due to the accumulation of rainwater in the streets and low-lying areas, and rise in temperature which ultimately leads to health and infrastructure losses.Damages from climate change have resulted in US$1.7 trillion global losses from 2000 to 2012 [3]. Similarly, EM-DAT (emergency disaster database), reports that the total number of natural disasters year-on-year has increased from 78 in 1970 to 348 in 2004 [26]. Floods and their impacts are likely to increase in the future due to urbanization, land-use change, lack of regulations, and poor preparedness efforts [27]. Undoubtedly, South Asian countries will bear the major brunt of climate change.People move to cities presuming to be safer against climate-related natural disasters in Pakistan [28]. However, overpopulation, congestion, and haphazard urban growth make urban areas dangerous as compared to the countryside. Pakistan’s Planning Commission has also acknowledged that rapid urbanization and climate change reinforce the negative impacts of each other [24].
- (b)
- Unregulated urbanization: in the last decade alone, low and middle-income countries faced 53% of global disasters yet they suffered 93% of the fatalities [29]. Such significantly polarized impacts on the developing world are large because of unsafe and unregulated urban development [30], which leads to natural disasters. In fact global economic losses from natural disasters estimated at USD 232 billion from 2000 to 2020 [31]. The global urban population is expected to rise from the present 50 to 66% by 2050. It is expected that a 90% urban growth would take place in Africa and Asia [32], where South Asia will top the list with major capital investment to build new houses to accommodate the burgeoning population. This housing growth will take place in cities with poor capacity to ensure risk-sensitive construction, putting the lives of vulnerable and poor people at higher risk to natural hazards [30]. The referred literature re-emphasizes the fact that haphazard urbanization is a major challenge in Pakistan.
- (c)
- Housing shortage: research suggests that globally 1.4 million people are moving into urban areas every week. To meet the rising housing demand, humankind will build 1 billion new residential units by 2050, which is more than the houses built in the entire history of mankind [33].The State Bank of Pakistan estimated an urban housing shortage of 4.4 million in 2015. The five largest cities in Pakistan will have 78% of the total housing shortage by 2035. The Framework of Economic Growth (FEG) and Vision2025 explicitly acknowledge the housing crisis in Pakistan, to be mainly due to horizontal urban growth. For example, FEG provides a comparative example of Dubai and Pakistan. Figure 1 depicts that in Dubai, 0.2 million people live in 1 km2, whereas in Pakistan the corresponding figure is merely 6 thousand. This shows that Dubai’s urban density is 27 times greater than that of Pakistan’s [34].According to the FEG, the reason for low urban density in Pakistan is the adoption of the “garden city” approach in the early years of independence. The absence of tower cranes, strict land regulation, and zoning policies stifled vertical urban growth and development of downtowns while allowing Pakistani cities to develop large suburban sprawls [22]. Unfortunately, this policy continues unabated.The absence of high-rises does not mean that they are unfeasible in Pakistani cities. Such mixed-use high-rise development was a norm until the sixties when the “garden city” paradigm promoted single housing development [22]. In fact, multi-story buildings are commonly available in big cities, demonstrating their commercial and structural feasibility.While acknowledging the housing shortage in Pakistan, the successive governments devised plans like the FEG and Vision2025 to address the shortage. Lately, the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) government has also made an ambitious strategy to increase the availability of residential units in the country.
- (d)
- Diminishing social capital: social capital is defined as trust, connectedness, and teamwork in a community. Unfortunately, inadequate and dilapidated public spaces in Pakistani urban areas such as town squares, community centers, theaters, playgrounds, forums, shopping centers, and libraries are the reason for reduced social capital in the country. FEG understood this important need in urban development as it desired the availability of more public spaces while duly considering the context of high-rise and mixed-use construction [34]. Regrettably, the entire plan could not be materialized with the change of government in the year 2013.
- (e)
- Inadequate Spatial Planning: Disproportionate and outdated zoning laws have exacerbated the rational use of urban land for residential, commercial, and industrial needs. For instance, the best planned city of Pakistan, Islamabad, has 55% of the land reserved for residential use, whereas only 5% for commercial activity, which leads to unplanned and haphazard urbanization [34]. Similarly, the big cities in Pakistan, like Karachi, Lahore, and Faisalabad face exponential growth in slums and katchi abadis (shanty towns) without any basic municipal facilities. Such unplanned growth will ultimately lead to unsustainable and retarded economic growth [24].
- (f)
- Ineffective building by-laws: enforcing building codes and land use planning to deal with mass disasters is a prerequisite [35]. Unfortunately, they are not implemented in many developing countries including Pakistan. For instance, poorly built buildings were severely damaged during the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan in which thousands of people lost their lives under the collapsed buildings [36]. Similarly, a 7.8 magnitude earthquake in Nepal in April 2015 took 9000 lives and demolished built infrastructure [33]. In developed countries like Japan, earthquakes of a similar magnitude normally cause lesser damages due to resilient building infrastructure. The country’s well developed national laws based on scientific research, engineering analysis, a framework for certification, inspection, professional and workforce training, building finance, and insurance have reduced the risk of natural hazards.
- (g)
- Urban water scarcity: industrialization, urbanization, and population growth, coupled with inefficiencies in water use, leads to groundwater depletion and the declining quality of surface water. Climate change aggravates these pressures [37]. In fact, water scarcity is a global issue where 78% of the world population will be facing physical and economic water scarcity by 2025 [38].Pakistan’s per capita water availability has already reduced from 5300 m3 in 1947 to less than 1000 m3 in 2016 [39]. Approximately, 120 million people in Pakistan face severe water scarcity during at least part of the year [40].National estimates suggest that in Punjab, the groundwater table has gone down by 15 to 20 feet in the last five to six years, whereas in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, it has been going down by 6 to 21 inches every year [41]. Droughts, unexpected water supply interruptions, or dilapidated networks may further jeopardize the water resilience of urban areas, which may trigger social and ethnic tensions especially in socially and ethnically diverse cities like Karachi and Peshawar. Considering the increasing population and water disputes with India and Afghanistan, per capita water availability will shrink further. These are the neighboring countries from where Pakistan gets the most of its freshwater inflows.
3.3. Urban Resilience Discourse
3.3.1. National Urban Discourse
- (a)
- Framework for Economic Growth: in the year 2011, the Planning Commission of Pakistan prepared the Framework for Economic Growth. In this document, reasonable emphasis was made on making cities creative. The FEG aimed to spur economic growth while considering the cities as engines for economic productivity. The idea for creative cities was for promoting mixed-use activities, encouraging energy efficiency, facilitating vertical growth, privatizing unproductive state-owned land, encouraging foreign land developers to compete in the Pakistani real estate market, and focusing on research and development in low-cost energy-efficient construction techniques [34].FEG also elucidated some elaborate provisions for promoting the housing sector in Pakistan. For instance, it advised modernizing the land registration system in a centralized database, establishing a housing database such as the price index, the access index in assistance with national organizations like the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) and the Federal Board of Revenue (FBR), registration of property dealers, releasing unproductive state land, curtailing the growth of slums and encouraging high-density, mixed-use urban development [34]. Even though never implemented, FEG remained a benchmark for policymakers in the following years.
- (b)
- Vision2025: the next major planning document of the Planning Commission was Vision2025. It was introduced in the year 2014. It acknowledged the serious urban challenges in Pakistan. The Vision2025 enlisted many measures for transforming Pakistani urban areas into the most advanced and creative cities so that they can be on par with the cities of the developed world. For instance, Vision2025 proposed creative, eco-friendly, and sustainable cities. The government also envisioned the availability of efficient mass transit systems, better security, zoning laws for ‘mixed-use’ areas, vertical rather than horizontal growth, meeting housing shortage, the provision of adequate municipal services, developing pedestrian-friendly streets, the digitization of the land registration system, maintenance and protection of heritage sites and digitally intra and interconnected cities for real-time data sharing so that cities in Pakistan be smart and creative in the future [24].All measures were enlisted without any detailed implementation planning except mentioning the presence of an Urban Planning Unit at the Ministry of Planning, Development & Reforms. Since urban councils are provincial subjects, except for the federally administered 43 Cantonment Boards and the capital Islamabad, it is yet to be ascertained if any real urban development work or consultation has been undertaken with the provincial governments with regard to the implementation of Vision25.
- (c)
- Climate Change Policy: the Ministry of Climate Change introduced this policy in the year 2012. The ministry confessed the serious impacts of climate change on urban areas. It proposed several policy measures for climate change adaptation and mitigation. In an urban area, town planning was made a prerequisite for the adaptation to climate change. The policy also desired low-carbon emissions by human settlements with properly managed fuel and energy consumption [43].For mitigating climate change impacts on urban areas, respective municipal governments will introduce changes in town planning and building systems. For achieving this purpose, the municipal bodies will build wastewater treatment plants, modernize solid waste management, cut carbon footprints via updated town planning, design zero-emission buildings through renewable energy technology, ensure “land use planning”, encourage vertical rather than horizontal urban expansion, undertake the mapping and zoning of land for industrial areas, and make the installation of solar water heaters mandatory for commercial and public buildings [43].However, the implementation of the policy is a big challenge, which has already been acknowledged by the ADB in its report on the climate change profile of Pakistan in the year 2017 [44]. Further research is also needed if urban policy measures from the climate change policy section were ever given any serious thought. Whether municipal bodies of various cities from different provinces were ever taken on board or any consultation was held for implementing the policy recommendations.
- (d)
- Urban Climate Change Resilience Trust Fund (UCCRTF): the Asian Development Bank in collaboration with Oxfam and the Omar Asghar Khan Foundation launched a project of urban financing partnership facility for building resilience at the community level in different cities of Asia. Abbottabad and Sialkot from Pakistan are set to benefit from the collaborative project, which aims to find the most vulnerable wards of the two cities for developing their resilience by selecting the members from the local community. The Community Stakeholders Group (CSG) will be composed of women, youth, and persons with disabilities for leading and implementing the project. A workshop has already been held in Abbottabad municipality on 6 February 2019 where organizers introduced goals, outputs, and work plans of the project execution.
- (e)
- World Bank-funded Sindh Resilience Project: this scheme aims to deal with floods and drought for building water resilience in the province. The project is for building flood embankments along major riverine canals, constructing small recharged dams for protecting communities from torrential and flash flooding, and developing the capacity of the Sindh Irrigation Department for equipment upgrading, and river morphological studies. Unfortunately, in this project, the researchers could not find a single urban specific investment in any city of the province for building urban resilience in the most urbanized province of Pakistan. The reason for mentioning this project in this urban-specific literature is that this is the only project in Pakistan which mentions the term ″resilience building″.
- (f)
- Urban Sector Planning and Management Services Unit Pvt. Ltd. (The Urban Unit): the Punjab government established this knowledge-based private organization in 2006. Subsequently, the provincial government renamed this Project Management Unit and registered it with the Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan in the year 2012. The Unit is adequately equipped with financial and human resources. A team of 400 having expertise in all sectors of urban planning and management are working in the organization for the urban policy area.Its mandate is to give policy advice and provide services to the public and private sector organizations in the field of housing, urban planning, urban transport, solid waste management, water and sanitation, urban economics, municipal finance, institutional development, capacity building, and urban services delivery improvement.The unit has extensively published a database on urbanization and urban issues especially in the largest province of Pakistan i.e., Punjab. Urban discourse on the Urban Unit website covers a wide range of topics like green spaces, transportation, and Pakistan’s urban growth data in recent decades. It also publishes an Urban Geographic journal and organizes consultative discussions with national stakeholders on the latest issues like smog in Lahore.
- (g)
- Naya Pakistan Housing Project: the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) government has initiated an ambitious plan to provide housing facilities to the urban residents at a reduced cost. The initiative, if executed as planned, will certainly reduce the housing deficiency in the urban areas. The project will not only increase the social resilience of urban residents but also reduce the slums or katchi abadis. However, the housing plan table of the proposed scheme shows that it has chosen the existing model of horizontal urban expansion rather than opting for the vertical path.The table (Figure 2) reveals that one-unit houses will be maximum followed by additions to existing stories, ground+3, and midrise. Considering the quality of construction prevalent in Pakistan where multi-story buildings keep collapsing every other day, adding further stories to existing buildings will not only jeopardize the lives of existing residents but also endanger the future inhabitants. High-rise has been given the last priority in the plan.
- (h)
- Orangi Pilot Project (OPP): it is a non-governmental organization (NGO) established in Karachi in the year 1980 by Dr. Akhtar Hameed Khan [46]. Dr. Hameed was an eminent philanthropist, who selflessly worked for uplifting Orangi Town, one of the largest slums of Pakistan in Karachi. This slum is a cluster of 113 low-income settlements, housing 1.5 million people. The self-supported organization aimed to uplift the lives of the slum residents through five programs such as low-cost sanitation, housing, health, education, and credit for micro-enterprise.The organization has three branches. The first is the Research and Training Institute, which manages low-cost sanitation, housing support, education, water supply, and women’s saving programs. From this platform, the project has succeeded in approving land tenure security to 1063 goths (villages) by mid-2010 and provided a loan to 100 houses on an annual basis [47]. The second is Orangi Charitable Trust, which manages a micro-enterprise credit program. The third is Karachi Health and Social Development Association (KHASDA), which runs a health program. The project was immensely successful as it improved the lives of a million residents.
3.3.2. Institutional Framework against DRR
3.3.3. Globally Adopted Urban Resilient Policies and Plans
- (a)
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): SDG 11 is for “making cities and human settlements inclusive, safer, resilient and sustainable”. This goal extensively covers all aspects of resilient urban development. For example, it desires affordable housing by reducing slums, sustainable and affordable urban transport, reducing physical and economic losses due to disasters, paying attention to air quality, solid waste management, and adopting and implementing the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 2015–2030. However, empirical research is needed for the actual implementation of SDG Number 11 and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 in Pakistan.
- (b)
- Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 (Sendai Framework) it is a sequel to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005–2015, which was an agreement for a resilient and sustainable development agenda. The UN General Assembly duly endorsed the Framework in 2015 at its Third World Conference on disaster risk reduction. It proposed seven global targets, four priorities for action, and implementation guidelines for the Sendai Framework [51].
3.4. Global Risk Reduction and Urban Resilience Models
- (a)
- Resilient qualities: resilient cities usually have some powerful characteristics such as being reflective, robust, redundant, flexible, resourceful, integrated, and inclusive in their systems. Each one of them is explained below.Reflective: institutions and their allied stakeholders keep learning from experiences with an adaptive planning mindset so that they can minimize the impacts of catastrophes. They should have dynamic standards for adopting emerging challenges rather than relying on redundant solutions for shocks and stresses.Robust: city systems are designed and managed in a way to prevent catastrophes and anticipate system failures to enhance the predictability of challenges and the security of cities.Redundant: this means an extra capacity to meet the untoward demands of city residents if one system becomes redundant. For example, a city can have multiple sources of water or electricity supply. If one system fails to deliver due to unknown reasons, the next should be on standby to prevent interruption.Flexible: a changing and evolving city will continue adopting alternative strategies both in the short as well as long-term to respond to the changing conditions.Resourceful: city stakeholders and managers should predict future urban challenges so that they can prioritize, mobilize, and coordinate all kinds of resources in case of extreme events or needs.Inclusive: an approach in which all urban communities, especially the vulnerable segment of the urban population, are consulted with and are engaged in for building city resilience so that they have a feeling of ownership.Integrated: investment, decision-making, and city systems should be supportive of each other for a common goal. They should be built in such a way to be in sync with one another and have information and feedback response mechanisms in time of urgency.
- (b)
- The Rockefeller Foundation City Resilience Framework: Arup, in its report on City Resilience Framework, has enlisted eight key city functions that sustain a city’s resilience. These include delivering basic human needs, safeguarding the life of human beings, protecting, maintaining, and enhancing physical assets, facilitating identity and relationship among humans, promoting knowledge and information, defending the rule of law, justice, and equity, supporting livelihood, and stimulating economic prosperity [4]. On the contrary, if a city has an unsafe and degraded environment, conflicts, deprivations, insecurity, or ill-health, it is considered as not resilient and extremely vulnerable to shocks.The Arup report on City Resilience is a comprehensive document based on collected data from cities across the continent having diverse capabilities and resources to cope up with the disasters and which have faced a catastrophe in recent years. The foundation has developed a City Resilience Index, which has four broad categories of City Resilience Index, divided into 12 goals and subdivided into 52 indicators followed by 156 variables.
- (c)
- “Crunch Model” or commonly called “Pressure and Release Model”: this model was developed by Oxfam. It helps in understanding and reducing the disaster risk. The model at Figure 3 indicates that vulnerability (pressure), which is endemic in socio-economic and political processes, has to be dealt with (released) so that disaster risk can be reduced and the resilience of the urban areas is amplified.According to the disaster crunch model, a hazard is an unexpected event, which affects vulnerable people. When two elements i.e., hazard and vulnerability, join in tandem, they influence marginalized people by bringing disaster. A hazard cannot be a disaster if it struck a resilient population. Likewise, a highly vulnerable community can stay safe from a disaster if a triggering event like a danger stays away from the population [53]. Hence a vulnerability pressure, which has roots in socio-economic and political processes has to be addressed and released so that the risk of disaster can be minimized.The original model is not much different from the latest one, which is reasonably brief. According to the original model, people are vulnerable if they cannot forecast, withstand, and recover from a disaster.The two-dimensional model has a vulnerability progression and hazards as major components. The root causes of vulnerability are limited access to power, structures, and resources with weak political and economic systems. Dynamic pressures like the lack of effective local institutions, training, and investment, as well as population growth, rapid and haphazard urbanization, deforestation, and soil degradation, merge with dangerous locations, dilapidated buildings and infrastructure, lack of disaster preparedness, and endemically prevalent diseases to bring disasters. These factors are combined with opposing hazards like earthquakes, fast winds, cyclones, hurricanes, landslides, drought, and volcanic eruptions to damage lives and livelihoods [53].
- (d)
- Three levels of city resilience: the Asian Development Bank proposed this model in its report on climate change resilient cities. According to the ADB, a city’s functional systems can bear shocks and stresses whereas nonfunctional systems cannot. In functional cities, frequent stresses do not impact on peoples’ and organizations’ everyday decision-making. Moreover, peoples’ and organizations’ capacity to fulfill their aims is continually supported by the cities’ institutional structures [3].
- (e)
- Risk reduction (resilience) model: it was proposed by Mehrota [54] and amended by UK Aid by adding a resilience dimension. According to the model when any stress or a challenging situation arises in an urban area resulting from natural disasters, drought, smog, food shortage, a concomitant increase in refugees, crimes, and criminals, they will test the residents’ vulnerability and resilience. Urban machinery such as institutions, civil society, public, and local action groups can reduce both acute and chronic urban challenges.
3.5. Disaster Risk Reduction and Relief Projects—Global Examples
- (a)
- The Katye Neighborhood Upgrading and Recovery Program: a devastating earthquake of 7.0 magnitude struck Port-au-Prince, capital of Haiti, on 12 January 2010. The earthquake affected 3 million people [55]. Ravine Pintade was among the hundreds of informal settlements badly affected by the disaster. Almost 90% of the residents were affected, whereas infrastructure was badly damaged and became inaccessible [56]. USAID and the Office of the US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) funded project was initiated for providing relief and recovery for the residents of Ravine Pintade. The goal was to meet the basic humanitarian needs of those affected and displaced by the earthquake to provide safe and habitable neighborhoods along with providing essential services [57]. The Katye pilot program aimed to ensure expert engagement, community participation, and coordination among government agencies to face natural disasters.The project was different from others in a way that it directly engaged with the affected households to rehabilitate their original neighborhoods rather than shifting them to camps and Greenfield construction. Within ten months of starting in November 2010, it succeeded in providing health, shelter, livelihoods, debris removal, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services. It was evaluated that the project generated substantial trust and mutual understanding between the communities and implementing agencies. Thus, Katye was a notable success [57].
- (b)
- Barrio Mio: Barrio Mio (My Neighborhood) was also a disaster risk reduction (DRR) project. It was funded and managed by Project Concern International (PCI) and OFDA, respectively. The project was carried out in 17 vulnerable settlements of Mixco city of Guatemala in three phases starting from 2012 [58]. The first phase was from October 2012 to March 2015, the second one from April 2015 to October 2017, and the third and last phase was expected to end in September 2020. The objectives of the project were to identify, pilot, and scale solutions to strengthen high-risk urban informal settlements, improve emergency response to disasters and convert vulnerable areas into safer, healthier, and resilient neighborhoods. It joined 40 stakeholders ranging from national and local governments, academic institutions, the private sector, and community participants. The strategy was to change, influence, advocate, and reduce the risk for people from the lower scale to a higher scale of governance.
4. Comparative Analysis
5. Recommendations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Urban Challenges in Pakistan | Climate Change, Unregulated Urban Development, Housing Shortage, Diminishing Social Capital, Inadequate and Faulty Spatial Planning, Insufficient Building Bye-Laws, Water Scarcity, Poor Air Quality | ||
---|---|---|---|
National Urban Plans and Policies | Summary of Proposed Actions | Global Urban Resilience Models | Summary of Proposed Actions |
| Creative and eco-friendly cities, mixed-use activities, energy efficiency, vertical expansion, mass transit systems, housing shortage, rescue services, data sharing, waste-water treatment plants, land mapping and zoning, community empowerment, slums reduction, air quality, a micro-credit program |
| Reflective cities, adaptive planning, innovative solutions against shocks and stresses, disaster anticipation and prevention, urban security, additional water and electric supply capacities, mobilization and coordination of existing resources, community engagement, promoting a sense of ownership, delivering human needs, knowledge promotion, releasing socio-economic and political pressures, reforestation, identification of dangerous buildings, eradicating endemic diseases, increasing income levels, controlling population growth, dynamic and strong urban institutions, risk identification, participative mapping, piloting innovative shelter, water and sanitation retro-fitting, women empowered groups. |
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Abdul, L.; Yu, T.-f. Resilient Urbanization: A Systematic Review on Urban Discourse in Pakistan. Urban Sci. 2020, 4, 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci4040076
Abdul L, Yu T-f. Resilient Urbanization: A Systematic Review on Urban Discourse in Pakistan. Urban Science. 2020; 4(4):76. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci4040076
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbdul, Latif, and Tao-fang Yu. 2020. "Resilient Urbanization: A Systematic Review on Urban Discourse in Pakistan" Urban Science 4, no. 4: 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci4040076