Strength, Transport Properties, and Life Cycle Impacts of Mortar Containing German Natural Pozzolan

Affan, Houssam; Fehr, Laurent; Al-Massri, Ginan; Alassaad, Farjallah; Yaghi, Amro; Ghanem, Hassan

doi:10.3390/infrastructures11020067

Open AccessArticle

Strength, Transport Properties, and Life Cycle Impacts of Mortar Containing German Natural Pozzolan

by

Houssam Affan

^1,*

,

Laurent Fehr

¹,

Ginan Al-Massri

²,

Farjallah Alassaad

³

,

Amro Yaghi

³ and

Hassan Ghanem

^2,*

¹

Laboratoire Béton, Groupe FEHR, 62 Route de Strasbourg, 67242 Bischwiller, France

²

Faculty of Engineering, Beirut Arab University, Beirut 12-5020, Lebanon

³

College of Engineering and Technology, American University of the Middle East, Egaila 54200, Kuwait

^*

Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Infrastructures 2026, 11(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures11020067

Submission received: 28 January 2026 / Revised: 12 February 2026 / Accepted: 14 February 2026 / Published: 16 February 2026

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Enhancing Sustainability and Durability of Cement and Concrete)

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Abstract

Portland cement production is energy- and carbon-intensive. Substituting part of the clinker with natural pozzolans is a promising route to lower-impact mortars. This work evaluates mortar where Portland cement is partially replaced by a German natural pozzolan (12–56% by mass). Compressive and flexural strengths were measured at 7, 28, and 90 d. Water-accessible porosity (28 d) and 24 h water absorption were also determined. Strength development and water transport were interpreted using (i) a three-parameter strength–age model and (ii) a capillary–diffusive model. The results showed delayed reactivity typical of pozzolanic materials. At 90 d, 12% replacement slightly exceeded the control by 3.38% and 1.4% in compressive and flexural strengths respectively. Higher replacement levels caused a drop in strength at 90 d (18.3% at 36% and 42.5% at 56% in compression; 25.3% and 31.0% in flexure). Porosity and absorption increased with replacement, consistent with the mechanical trends. The compressive and flexural strengths were strongly correlated. Life cycle analysis showed a significant reduction in embodied carbon, reaching approximately 52% at 56% replacement. Overall, moderate replacement (12–21%) provides the best balance between performance and carbon reduction.

Keywords: natural pozzolan; mortar; mechanical and hygric performance; mathematical model; life cycle analysis

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MDPI and ACS Style

Affan, H.; Fehr, L.; Al-Massri, G.; Alassaad, F.; Yaghi, A.; Ghanem, H. Strength, Transport Properties, and Life Cycle Impacts of Mortar Containing German Natural Pozzolan. Infrastructures 2026, 11, 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures11020067

AMA Style

Affan H, Fehr L, Al-Massri G, Alassaad F, Yaghi A, Ghanem H. Strength, Transport Properties, and Life Cycle Impacts of Mortar Containing German Natural Pozzolan. Infrastructures. 2026; 11(2):67. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures11020067

Chicago/Turabian Style

Affan, Houssam, Laurent Fehr, Ginan Al-Massri, Farjallah Alassaad, Amro Yaghi, and Hassan Ghanem. 2026. "Strength, Transport Properties, and Life Cycle Impacts of Mortar Containing German Natural Pozzolan" Infrastructures 11, no. 2: 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures11020067

APA Style

Affan, H., Fehr, L., Al-Massri, G., Alassaad, F., Yaghi, A., & Ghanem, H. (2026). Strength, Transport Properties, and Life Cycle Impacts of Mortar Containing German Natural Pozzolan. Infrastructures, 11(2), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures11020067

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Strength, Transport Properties, and Life Cycle Impacts of Mortar Containing German Natural Pozzolan

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